^.#*^
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2008 with funding from
Microsoft Corporation
http://www.archive.org/details/1600to1890eu00steprich
BY THE SAME AUTHOR.*
A HISTORY OF THE FRENCH REVOL^U-
TION, Vol. I., 1789-91; Vol. II., 1791-93
(New York; Charles Scribner's Sons).
THE PRINCIPAL SPEECHES OF TAE
STATESMEN AND ORATORS OF THE
FRENCH REVOLUTION, 1789-1795. Eai-
ted with Introduction, Notes and Indices.
2 Vols. (Oxford : Clarendon Press ; New
York; The Macmillan Company).
EUROPEAN HISTORY, 1789-1815 (Periods
of European History Series ; New York : The
Macmillan Company).
HISTORY OF PORTUGAL (Story of the Na-
tions Series; New York: G. P. Putnam's
Sons).
ALBUQUERQUE AND THE EARLY POR-
TUGUESE SETTLEMENTS IN INDIA
( Rulers of India Series. Oxford : Clarendon
Press ; New York : The Macmillan Company).
SYLLABUS
OF A
Course of Eighty-Seven Lectures
ON
Modern European History
(1600- I 890)
BY
H. MORSE STEPHENS
Professor of Modern European History in Cornell University
NEW YORK
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1903
Si
Copyright, 1899
By H. Morse Stephens
Set up, electrotyped and printed October, 1899
Reprinted August, 1903
• • •
• • • •
• • • » •'
'• •
Press OF
fHE New era Printing Company.
Lancaster, Pa.
PREFACE.
This volume is the second, revised and enlarged edition, of a syllabus
of lectures on modern European history, which has been used in Cor-
nell University during the past five years. It is published in book
form at the request of former pupils and of other teachers of history in
colleges and universities.
The problem of teaching history is complicated with regard to modem
European history by certain special considerations. Whatever may be
said for or against the lecture method as opposed to the holding of reci-
tations on a text-book, either with classes of young students or in such
subjects as English or American history, in which the subject-matter is
more easily made intelligible, there can be no doubt of the expediency
of the lecture method in teaching modern European history to classes
in colleges and universities. The complexity of the subject, the im-
possibility, arising from this very complexity, of providing an adequate
text-book, the strangeness of the proper names, and the confusion of
the historical perspective, owing to the absence of any particular cen-
tralizing institution or motive, contribute to make teaching through
lectures the accepted method of instruction in modem European history.
The best that can be done is, in each successive lecture, to fix the at-
tention of the class upon some of the changing phases of the subject,
and to Indicate where and how fuller information can be obtained.
This may be done by lecturing upon topics already studied by the
class in an approved text-book, which is also brought into the lec-
ture room, but there are certain special advantages in the use of a sylla-
bus. The practical assistance in the. taking of notes may be counted as
the chief of these advantages. It is hardly practicable for listeners to a
lecture to use the actual pages of the text-book as a guide in taking
notes. There is an inevitable difficulty in apprehending and inserting
the additional matter introduced by the lecturer in his treatment of the
subject. The literary form of the text-book and the diffusion of matter
over a number of pages also distract attention from the words of the
lecturer. There is next to be noted the question of dates. Unless the
iii
227428
iv Preface.
more important dates to be given in the lecture are conspicuously writ-
ten upon the blackboard or previously extracted from the pages of the
text-book, it is almost impossible for the members of the class to get
them correctly, however often they may be repeated. Still more diffi-
cult is it to take down correctly in notes proper names of unusual diffi-
culty in foreign languages. The pronunciation seldom indicates the
right spelling, and when in the course of a lecture French, German,
Italian, Polish and Russian proper names all have to be mentioned, it
is too much to expect that they can be correctly heard or rendered.
A syllabus containing the skeleton of a lecture, and giving the bare
facts in the order in which they are to be treated, with the dates and
proper names to be mentioned, is of positive value before, during, and
after the lecture hour. In the first place, it is possible for the students,
by looking through the syllabus of the lecture they are about to attend,
to note the arrangement of the subject and to get a general idea of the
manner in which it is to be handled. During the lecture hour, they
have before them the skeleton of the facts which it is the teacher's busi-
ness to develop and illustrate. They can take their notes either upon
pages interleaved in the syllabus itself, or in a note-book with references
to the corresponding pages and paragraphs. They are not distracted
by the effort to catch dates correctly, or to spell unfamiliar words in
foreign languages. After the lecture it is possible to review their
knowledge of the subject with the certainty that they have correctly
before them all the main facts, which have been narrated and made the
subject of comment.
It is not, of course, to be asserted that the use of a syllabus necessa-
rily dispenses with the use of a text-book. On the contrary, it presup-
poses either the use of a textbook or a considerable amount of supple-
mentary reading. It is advisable for the lecturer, when entering upon
a new topic to review briefly the secondary and primary authorities deal-
ing with it, and it is hoped that the bibliographies affixed to each
lecture in the present Syllabus may be of use in this respect. Every
teacher of history has his own preferences with regard to text-books,
and some may choose, like the compiler of this Syllabus, to refer his
students directly to brief secondary authorities rather than to any one
particular text-book. It need hardly be added that during the lecture
Preface. v
hour the syllabus should always be supplemented by a good historical
atlas, such as Putzger's Historischer Schul-Atlas, and that large wall
maps, such as MacCoun's, are indispensable for purposes of illustration.
It is always well to prefix to a course of lectures on modern European
history a general sketch of the historical geography of Europe.
Some points with regard to the Syllabus now published need special
explanation.
First, the number of lectures has been decided by the consideration
that eighty-seven lectures allow for three lectures a week for twenty-
nine weeks, which is as much time as can be given during the college
year to a single introductory course in modern European history.
Where a greater number of lectures can be given or a longer period
than one year it is possible to devote more than an hour to a single lec-
ture topic. Where the number of lectures proves too great, the difficulty
may be met by beginning the course at some date later than 1600, such
as 1648 or 1 7 15, or by stopping at some earlier date, such as 18 15 or
1848. A course of lectures may also be given upon any one of the
three centuries. Differences of opinion with regard to proportion and
to perspective in modern European history necessarily exist. The ar-
rangement adopted would need too long a defense to be entered upon
in a brief preface, but it may be stated that it has stood the test of five
years' experience. Other teachers might prefer to begin earlier or later,
or might prefer to devote more time to the period of the French Revolu-
tion and of Napoleon, but the conditions in Cornell University make it
expedient to begin this course with the Seventeenth Century ; while the
compiler gives, in alternate years, special advanced courses on the pe-
riod of the French Revolution and on the Napoleonic Era. The sylla-
buses of certain lectures, as for instance those upon the War of the Aus-
trian Succession and upon the Seven Years' War, are excessively long,
and need more than one hour's discourse, but the advantage of compre-
hending each topic as a whole has seemed to outweigh the disadvantage
of the exceeding length of an occasional syllabus. It will be noted that
the length of the syllabuses increases as they progress ; this is partly
due to the greater complexity of the later period, owing to the larger
number of important political factors, and partly due to the fact that
students as they get accustomed to the subject and to the use of the
vi Preface.
Syllabus can handle a greater quantity of material. A knowledge of
English and American history is presupposed and therefore events in
the internal history of England and the United States are not touched
upon.
It will be observed that the side of modern European history treated
in this Syllabus is the political. The primary object is the study of the
international relations of the different states of Europe from the begin-
ning of the Seventeenth Century to the present time. The internal de-
velopment of each state is only touched upon or summarized at intervals,
as when a new principle of national government comes into existence
and works its way through Europe, such as that expressed in the sys-
tem and ideas of the monarchy of Louis XIV., and of the enlightened
despotism, and in the movement for popular government which fol-
lowed the French Revolution. No attempt is made in these lectures to
deal with the history of European civilization or " Kulturgeschichte,"
although political history, when adequately treated, affords many
opportunities for dwelling upon the general history of human pro-
gress. It has been found of advantage, however, to pause occasion-
ally in the political narrative, in order to touch in the briefest possible
manner upon the history of literature, philosophy, art and science.
Six lectures in three groups are interpolated upon these subjects at ap-
propriate dates. The syllabuses of these six lectures are on a different
plan from those on political history, and are intended to bring out the
great contemporary movements of thought and art, through the na'mes
of the leading masters, rather than to attempt an exhaustive treatment.
It is important to know in what period of European political history
Moliere wrote, or Rembrandt painted, or Beethoven composed his sym-
phonies, even if it is not possible to dwell upon their achievements in
their own special lines of work.
Since one of the chief uses of a syllabus of lectures on modern Euro-
pean history is to keep before the students' eyes the dates of important
facts, not so much to impress them upon the memory as to make clear
the chronological sequence of events, the greatest care has been used to
give correct dates ; but it is inevitable that in such a mass of dates as is
contained in this Syllabus, mistakes must have been committed, or
passed over in the process of printing. In every case the Gregorian date
Preface, vii
is given and this causes an apparent discrepancy with the dates given
in many primary and secondary authorities. It is devoutly to be
wished that modern historians would always convert dates in the his-
tory of Protestant countries, until they adopted the "new style", and
of Russia and other countries under the Greek Church, into the Gre-
gorian dates. It may be noted here that, although the Gregorian cal-
endar was accepted in all Roman Catholic countries a^id in the provinces
of Holland and Zealand by 1587, it was not adopted in the Protes-
tant states of the Empire, the remainder of the Protestant Netherlands,
and Denmark until 1700, in the Protestant cantons of Switzerland until
1 701, in Great Britain until 1752, and in Sweden until 1753, and that
it has not yet been adopted in Russia, Greece and the Balkan States.
This Syllabus contains not only a mass of dates, but also, as has been
already explained, a mass of proper names, and a few words must be
said as to the system of spelling adopted. With regard to the names
of individuals, the Anglicized forms of Christian names have been used
wherever possible. Thus, Charles, Henry and John have been used in
the place of their French, German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese,
Swedish and Danish equivalents. An apparent exception is made in
case of Louis, which is now so far accepted in English as to have super-
seded the older spelling of Lewis. With regard to surnames, the spell-
ing of the country of origin has been adopted, except in such cases as
that of Mazarin, in which it would be pedantic to continue the original
spelling of Mazarini. A far greater problem is presented by the spell-
ing of names in Russian and other Slavonic languages. It has been
thought better to adopt the Anglicized forms of such Christian names
as Peter, Alexander and Nicholas ; but Ivan, Feodor and Vasili, in ac-
cordance with the best modern usage, have been retained in spite of the
temptation to change them into John, Theodore and Basil. Slavonic
surnames have been transliterated directly into English upon the prin-
ciples already adopted in the author's Europe, lySg-iSi^, and more
fully explained in Mr. J. B. Landfield's article in the American Histor-
ical Review, vol. 2, pp. 766-768. This is the only rational method of
spelling Slavonic proper names, since neither the French nor the
German transliterations indicate the correct pronunciation in English.
Muhammadan names are spelled according to the Hunterian standard,
which has been adopted by the British Government of India.
viii Preface,
With regard to the spelling of names of places, the rule adopted has
been to use the English spelling wherever an English spelling has been
established. No one will contest the correctness of using Florence,
Lyons and Vienna for Firenze, Lyon and Wien, nor the adoption of an
English usage wherever it can be found, as in the case of Strasburg,
Basle and Ratisbon. Where the name of the place has both a French
and a German form, as in the Rhenish provinces, it has been thought
better to retain the French form of spelling, since Cologne for Koln,
Treves for Trier, Mayence for Mainz, Munich for Miinchen, Nimeguen
for Nymwegen, and some others are not only the French forms, but have
also been practically adopted into English. It would be absurd to speak
of the Treaty of Aachen, when the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle is the
recognized designation in every English document and book. For all
places of minor importance, except Blenheim, the local spelling has
been retained. A new departure has been made in rejecting the forms
Roumania and Rumania, which are based upon French and German
spellings, and using the correct form Romania.
The appended tables of rulers and ministers have been found of prac-
tical value in teaching, by the opportunity afforded of seeing at a glance
the names of contemporary rulers. The number of genealogical appen-
dices might have been greatly increased, but the three given explain the
three most confusing genealogical puzzles of modern European history.
It is most essential, if the study of modern European history is to be
of greater value than to provide a mere skeleton knowledge, that every
student should be required during his undergraduate course to work
out particular problems for himself and to familiarize himself with some
field of historical literature. It has been the custom in Cornell Univer-
sity, during the past five years, to demand each term of every student
an essay, which shall not be a mere paraphrase of hastily read books,
but an exercise in using historical materials. Out of the need for pro-
viding authorities for these essay subjects arose the compilation of the
bibliographies subjoined to the syllabus of each lecture. These bibli-
ographies do not pretend to be complete, and they necessarily show, by
their greater fullness on some subjects than on others, the bias of the
compiler's own studies. An honest attempt has been made, however,
to give the names of books generally recognized as secondary authori-
Preface. ix
ties, with a list of the chief primary authorities, and occasionally refer-
ence is made to some small book in English for a brief summary. Most of
these bibliographies mention only books, which should be in every good
college library, and it is hoped that they may be serviceable on this
account to teachers of history, who desire to know to what books to
refer their students. Much assistance has been derived in revising the
bibliographies for the second edition of this Syllabus from the excellent
bibliographies contained in Lavisse and 'R.o.mhdiudi's Histoire generale.
A list of some of the most useful historical bibliographies, collections
of primary authorities, general histories, and other works of a general
character, is appended to this preface.
It remains to be said that the first edition of this Syllabus has been
used for the past five years in Cornell University with a class consisting
chiefly of juniors, who have already had courses in Mediaeval and Eng-
lish history, and that it has been found to give a fair basis on which to
found more detailed courses for seniors, as well as to afford some pre-
liminary training, both in historical perspective and in the use of his-
torical materials. The thanks of the compiler are especially due, and
are hereby given, to Mr. G. M. Butcher, A.B., of Cornell University, to
whose painstaking care this revised edition owes its superior accuracy
over its predecessor.
H. MORSE STEPHENS.
CoRNEi^i, University,
ITHACA, N. Y.
July, 1899.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
General Bibliography xv
LECTURES.
1. Introductory : Europe in 1600, i
2. The Policy of Henry IV. of France, 2
3. The Thirty Years' War : To the Death of Gustavus Adolphus and
of Wallenstein, 4
4. The Policy of Richelieu, 7
5. The Thirty Years' War : From 1634 to 1648, 9
6. The Treaties of Westphalia, 11
7. The Fronde, and the Treaty of the Pyrenees, 14
8. Europe in the Middle of the 17th Century : i. France, 17
9. Europe in the Middle of the 17th Century : 2. The Empire, the
House of Austria, and the German Princes, 19
10. Europe in the Middle of the 17th Century : 3. The Netherlands, . 22
11. Europe in the Middle of the 17th Century ; 4. Sweden and Den-
mark, 25
12. Europe in the Middle of the 17th Century : 5. Russia and Poland, 28
13. Europe in the. Middle of the 17th Century : 6. The Ottoman Turks, 30
14. Europe in the Middle of the 17th Century : 7. Italy, 33
15. Europe in the Middle of the 17th Century : 8. Spain and Portugal, 36
16. France under Louis XIV. and Colbert : To the Revocation of the
Edict of Nantes, 1685, 38
17. The Foreign Policy of Louis XIV. : To the Treaties of Nimeguen,
1678, 41
18. Frederick William, the Great Elector, 45
19. The Foreign Policy of Louis XIV. : To the Treaties of Ryswick,
1697 47
20. The Siege of Vienna by the Tm-ks, 1683 : Poland under John So-
bieski, 51
21. Russia under Peter the Great, 54
22. Charles XII. of Sweden, 56
23. The Spanish Succession, 59
24. The War of the Spanish Succession, 1701-14, 61
25. The Treaties of Utrecht, 65
26. Germany to 1715, 67
xii Table of Contents.
27. The Southern Countries of Europe to 17 15, 73
28. The Papacy in the 17th Century : The Jesuits and the Jansenists, . 76
29. The Last Years of the Reign of Louis XIV., 79
30. Literature and Philosophy in the 17th Century, 82
31. Art and Science in the 17th Century, 84
32. The Regency of Orleans, and the Schemes of Alberoni, 86
33. The End of the Northern War, 89
34. The Policy of the Emperor Charles VI 91
35. The War of the Polish Succession, 93
36. Frederick William I. of Prussia, and the Tsaritsa Anne of
Russia, . . 96
37. The War of the Austrian Succession, 99
38. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, and the Austro-French Alliance, . 105
39. The Seven Years' War, 108
40. France under Louis XV,, 112
41. The Suppression of the Jesuits, 115
42. The First Partition of Poland, 118
- 43. The War of American Independence, 122
' -^ "44. France under Louis XVI., 124
45. Prussia under Frederick the Great, 127
46. Russia under Catherine the Great, 131
47. The Emperor Joseph II., 135
48. The Northern Countries of Europe to 1789, 139
49. The Southern Countries of Europe to 1789, 144
50. Germany to 1789, . - 149
51. The Enlightened Despots, 153
52. Literature and Philosophy in the i8th Century, 156
53. Art and Science in the i8th Century, 158
- - 54. The French Revolution, 162
55. The Belgian Revolution, and the Policy of the Emperor Leopold II., 165
56. The War of the French Republic against Europe 169 .
57. The Second and Third Partitions of Poland, 173
58. The Treaties of Basle, 176
59. The French Directory, and the First Victories of Bonaparte, . . . 179
60. The Second Coalition against the French Republic, 184
61. The Treaties of Lundville and of Amiens, 187
62. The Consulate in France, and the Re-constitution of Germany, . 190
^ 63. The Power of Napoleon at its Height, 193
/ 64. Europe during the Ascendency of Napoleon, .......... 197
65. The Overthrow of the Power of Napoleon, . 201
66. The Congress of Vienna, 205
67. The Holy Alliance .209
Table of Contents. xiii
68. The Eastern Question : The Independence of Greece, 213
69. The Revolution of 1830 in France, 217
70. The Belgian Insurrection 220
71. Insurrection and Civil War in Spain and Portugal, 223
72. Europe during the Reign of Louis Philippe, 226
73. The Revolution of 1848 in France, 231
74. The Revolution of 1848 in Italy, 235
75. The Revolution of 1848 in Austria, 239
76. The Revolution of 1848 in Germany, 244
77. Europe after the Revolutions of 1848 247
78. Literature and Philosophy from 1789 to 1848, 251
79. Art and Science from 1789 to 1848, 254
80. The Eastern Question : The Crimean War, 257
81. The Union of Italy, 261
82. The Overthrow of Austria, 265
83. The Re-constitution of Germany and Austria, 269
84. The Franco-German War, 274
85. Europe after the Franco-German War : The Dreikaiserbund, . . . 278
86. The Eastern Question : The Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78, .... 282
87. Europe to 1890 : The Triple Alliance, 286
APPENDIX.
I. The Rulers of Europe from 1600 to 1899 : The Great Powers, . . 293
II. The Rulers of Europe from 1600 to 1899 : The Lesser Powers, , 300
III. The Rulers of Europe from 1600 to 1899 : Italy, 305
IV. The Rulers of Europe from 1600 to 1899 : Germany, 310
V. The Rulers of Independent and Semi-independent States formed
from the Turkish Empire during the 19th Century, 315
VI. Genealogical Table representing the Relationship of the Claim-
ants to the Spanish Succession (1700), 317
VII. Genealogical Table representing the Succession to the Russian
Throne in the i8th Century, 318
VIII. Genealogical Table representing the Claimants to the Austrian
Succession (1740) and the Children of Maria Theresa, .... 319
General Bibliography.
Bibliographies.
Langlois : Manuel de bibliographie historique.
Monod : Bibliographic de Thistoire de France.
Franklin : Les sources de I'histoire de France.
Dahlmann-Waitz : Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte. (ed. Steindorff.)
Pirenne : Bibliographic de Thistoire de Belgique.
Historische Gesellschaft zu Berlin: Jahresberichte der Geschichtswissen-
schaft. (Since 1878.)
Atlases.
Putzger : Historischer Schul- Atlas.
Poole : Historical Atlas of Modern Europe. (Clarendon Press. — In course of
publication. )
Schrader : Atlas de geographic historique.
Droysen : Allgemeiner historischer Hand-Atlas.
Spruner-Menke : Hand-Atlas fiir die Geschichte des Mittelalters und der
neueren Zeit.
Chronologies.
Bond : Handy-Book of Rules and Tables for Verifying Dates.
Pioetz : Epitome of Universal History, (ed. Tillinghast, to 1883.)
Hassall : Handbook of European History, 476-1871.
Qhillany : Europaische Chronik von 1492 bis Ende April, 1877.
L'art de verifier les dates des faits historiques. (To 1827. )
Belviglieri : Tavole sincrone e genealogiche di storia italiana dal 300 al 1870.
Genealogies.
Lorenz : Genealogisches Handbuch der europaischen Staatengeschichte.
Grote: Stammtafeln.
George : Genealogical Tables illustrative of Modern History.
Almanach de Gotha. (Since 1764. )
Historical Dictionaries.
Haydn : Dictionary of Dates.
Harper's Book of Facts. (Ed. Lezvis. American edition of Haydn.)
Herbst : Encyklopadie der neueren Geschichte.
Lalanne : Dictionnaire historique de la France.
xVi General Bibliography,
Biographical Dictionaries.
Thomas : Universal Pronouncing Dictionary of Biography and Mythology
(1886).
GEttinger : Moniteur des dates. (1869, with supplements to 1882.)
Michaud : Biographic universelle. (1854-65.)
Hoefer : Nouvelle biographic generale. (1857-66.)
Vapereau : Dictionnairc universel des contemporains. (Sixth edition, 1892.)
Stephen and Lee : Dictionary of National Biography. (1885— In progress.)
Liliencron and Wegele : Allgemcine deutsche Biographic. (1877— In progress.)
Wurzbach : Biographisches Lexicon des Kaiserthums CE)sterreich. (1856-91.)
Van der Aa : Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlandcn. (1852-78.)
General Histories.
Hassall : Periods of European History. (To 1815— final volume to appear.)
Lavisse and Rambaud : Histoire generale du iv® si^cle £i nos jours. (To 1871 —
final volume to appear.)
Collections of Histories.
(Putnams*): The Story of the Nations.
Oncken : Allgemeine Geschichte in Einzeldarstellungen.
Heeren, Ukert, Qiesebrecht and Lamprecht : Geschichte der europaischen
Staaten.
General Histories of Countries.
riartin: Histoire de France. (To 1789.)
Sismondi : Histoire des Fran^ais. (To 1789.)
Michelet: Histoire de France. (To 1789.)
Dareste: Histoire dc France. (To 1848.)
Lafuente: Historia general de Espaiia. (To 1789.)
Canovas del Castillo : Historia general de Espana escrita por individuos de
numero de la Real Academia de la Historia.
Botta: Storiad'Italia. (To 1789.)
Cantil : Histoire des Italiens. (Tr. Lacombe, to 1856.)
Daru : Histoire de la republique de Venise. (To 1798.)
Miiller, Qloutz-Blozheim and Hettinger : Histoire de la confederation Suisse ;
traduite de I'allemaud et continuee par Monard et Vulliemin. (To 1815.)
Finlay : History of Greece. (To 1864.) ,
Hammer: Histoire dc Tempire ottoman. (Tr. Hellert, to 1774-)
Sayous : Histoire g^n^rale des Hongrois. (To 1815.)
Xenopol : Histoire des Roumains dc la Dacic Trajane. (To 1859.)
Rambaud: History of Russia. (Tr. Za«^, to 1891.)
General Bibliography, xvil
L6ger: History of Austro-Hungary. (Tr. Hill, to 1889.)
Krones : Handbuch der Geschichtc O^stcrreichs. (To 1870.)
Allen : Histoire de Danetnark. (Tr. Beauvois, to 1866.)
Blok : History of the People of the Netherlands. (Tr. Bierstadt and Putnam,
In progress. )
Juste: Histoire de Belgique. (To 1865.)
Historical Geographies.
Freeman : Historical Geography of Europe. (To 1879.)
Himly : Histoire de la formation territoriale des ^tats de rEurope centrale.
(Second Ed., to 1890.)
Hertslet : Map of Europe by Treaty, 1814-1891.
Collections of Memoirs.
Petitot and Monmerque: Collection complete des m^moires relatifs ^ I'his-
toire de France depuis I'avenement de Henri IV. jusqu'a la paix de Paris, conclue
en 1763.
Michaud and Poujoulat : Nouvelle collection des m^moires pour servir i This-
toire de France depuis le XIIP siecle jusqu'd la fin du XVIIP si^cle.
Collections of Treaties and Diplomatic Correspondence.
Dumont and Rousset de flissy : Corps universel diplomatique du droit des
gens coutenant un recueil des traitez. (To 1737.)
Wenck: Codex juris gentium recentissimi. (1735-1772.)
Martens: Recueil de traites etc., depuis 1761 jusqu'a present. (Continued by
others, with slight changes of title, to the present day.)
Martens: Recueil des traites et conventions conclus par la Russie avec les
puissances etrang^res.
Sorel : Recueil des instructions donndes aux ambassadeurs et ministres de
France depuis les traitds de Westphalie jusqu'a la Revolution franjaise.
National Collections of Documents.
France : Collection de documents in^dits sur I'histoire de France. (Since 1835. )
Spain : Coleccion de documentos ineditos para la historia de Espaiia. (Since
1842.)
Netherlands : Werken uitgegeven door het Historisch Genootschap, gevestigd
te Utrecht. (Since 1846.)
Austro-Hungary : Fontes Rerum Austriacarum. CGsterreichische Geschichts-
Quelleu. (Since 1855.)
Russia: Russkoe Istoricheskoe Obshchestvo : Sbornik. (Since 1867).
Prussia: Publicationen aus den k. preussischen Staatsarchiven. (Since 1878.)
xviii General Bibliography,
Publications of Academies.
Academic des sciences morales et politiques : Memoires. (Since 1798.)
Comptes rendus des seances et travaux. (Since 1840.)
Die konigliche bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Miinchen:
Gelehrte Anzeigen. (1835-1860.) Sitzungsberichte. (Since i860, )
Die konigliche preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin:
Bericht iiber die zur Bekanntmachung geeigneten Verhandlungen. (1836-1855.)
Monatsberichte. (1856-1881.) Sitzungsberichte. (Since 1882.)
Die kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften (Vienna): Sitzungsberichte.
(Since 1848.) Denkschriften. (Since 1850.) Archiv fiir Kunde osterreichischer
Geschichts-Quellen. (1848-1865.) Archiv fiir osterreichische Geschichte. (Since
1865.)
Koniglich Sachsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig:
Berichte. (Since 1849.) Abhaudlungen. (Since 1850.)
Historical Reviews.
Historische Zeitschrift. (Since 1859.)
Revue des questions historiques. (Since 1866.)
Revue historique. (Since 1876.)
English Historical Review. (Since 1886.)
American Historical Review. (Since 1895.)
LECTURES
ON
MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY.
LECTURE 1,
INTRODUCTORY:
EUROPE IN 1600.
The first half of the 17th century was marked by the same charac-
teristics as the last half of the i6th, but traces of the modern European
system, which existed after the Treaties of Westphalia and of the Pyre-
nees, were to be seen in the policy pursued by Henry IV. of France
and Cardinal Richelieu.
The period covered by the i6th and first half of the 17th century was
a period of transition from the ferment caused by the Reformation, the
discovery of the New World and of the direct sea route to Asia, the
invention of printing, etc., to the more settled conditions of internal
government and international relations, which lasted from the Treaties
of Westphalia to the French Revolution.
The characteristic features of this transition period were the Wars of
Religion.
Causes of the Wars of Religion : the earnestness imparted by the
Reformation supplemented by the work of the Counter- Reformation ;
so that war on behalf of religion, and persecution came to be considered
religious duties ; religious intolerance among earnest men matched by
the unscrupulous conduct of politicians.
During the Wars of Religion the sense of National Unity began to
be felt, binding peoples by their countries rather than by their faiths: in
this way the Wars of Religion helped to modify the results of feudalism.
2 ^ , .,",'."; ^ c :Henfy IV. of Fraiice.
Different effects of the Wars of Religion in different countries, e. g.^
(i) in the Netherlands, (2) in France, (3) in Germany.
Tendency toward strong government and standing armies to avert
the horrors of religious and civil wars ; France being the first country
to obey this tendency became, during the first half of the 17th cen-
tury, the most important nation in Kurope.
Where the national spirit developed, countries became strong in spite
of religious internal differences, e. g.^ France, England, the United
Provinces.
Relative position of the powers of Europe toward each other in 1600.
The condition of Germany : unsatisfactory settlement made of the
religious question by the Peace of Augsburg (1555) ; the pretensions
and actual strength of the Holy Roman Empire ; the electors, and the
princes of the Empire ; certainty of further religious war in Germany.
The Papacy : its increased spiritual strength after the Council of
Trent (1545-1563), due to the Counter- Reformation and the work of the
Jesuits.
In the year 1600, although religious war impended in German 3^ owin^
to German conditions, it was practically at its close elsewhere, for
Henry IV. had just issued the Edict of Nantes, Philip II. of Spain was
just dead, and Elizabeth of England was at the very end of her reign.
LECTURE 2.
THE POLICY OF HENRY IV. OF FRANCE.
The character and early career of Henry IV. (b. 1553).
His part in the Wars of Religion in France.
On the death of Henry III. (1589), Henry of Bourbon, who had
been King of Navarre since 1572, claimed the throne of France as next
male heir ; his struggles as Huguenot leader against the Catholics.
He adopted the Catholic religion (1593), and thus became a national
king.
Henry IV, of France. 3
*
The issue of the Edict of Nantes (13 April, 1598), and the pacifica-
tion of the Huguenots : terras of the Edict.
Conclusion of the war with Philip II. of Spain by the Treaty of Ver-
vins (2 May, 1598): terms of the treaty.
The internal policy of Henry IV. as worked out by the Due de Sully
(b. 1560, d. 1641).
L His absolutism in government; justified by the turbulence and
want of patriotism of the nobles : execution of Biron (31
July, 1602).
ii. His administrative reforms.
in. His judicial reforms : seats in the Parlements made hereditary.
iv. His financial reforms : the new taxation.
V. His advancement of the material prosperity of his people :
a. by encouraging agriculture : Olivier de Serres.
b. by undertaking public works.
c. by establishing manufactures.
d. hy reviving commerce.
vi. His interest in trans- Atlantic exploration and emigration:
foundation of Annapolis (1604), of Quebec (1608).
The foreign policy of Henry IV.: the '* Grand Design": the ques-
tion of its authenticity.
Assassination of Henry IV. at Paris by Francois Ravaillac (14 May,
1610): its eJBFect on France and on Europe.
Authorities : The most recent small book in English on the life of Henry IV.
is a biography by Willert. The best secondary authorities are Poirson, His-
toire du regne de Henri IV., 4 vols. ; Guadet. Henri IV. sa vie etses Merits ; Per-
rens, Les manages espagnols sous le regne de Henri IV. et la r^gence de Marie de
Medicis, and L'Eglise et I'Etat en France sous le regne de Henri IV. et la r^geuce
de Marie de Medicis ; Zeller, Henri IV. et Marie de Medicis ; Lacombe, Henri
IV. et sa politique ; Philippson, Heinrich IV. und Philipp III. ; Anquez, Henri
IV. et I'AUemagne, d'apres les m^moires et la correspon dance de Jacques Bon-
gars; Rotty Henry IV., les Suisses et la Haute-Italie; Kertnaingant, L*ambassade
de France en Angleterre sous Henri IV. ; Puyol, Edm. Richer : dtude sur la reno-
vation du gallicanisme au commencement du XVII. ieme siecle, 2 vols.; Read,
Henri IV. et le ministre Daniel Chamier ; Henrard, Henri IV. et la princesse de
Coudd ; and Phet, Henri IV. et I'Eglise ; see also the essays on •' La France sous
Henri IV." in Hanoiaux^ Etudes Historiques sur le XVI« et le XVIP siecle, and on
4 The Thirty Years' War, 1618-34..
"Ravaillac et ses complices" in Loiseleur, Questions historiques du XVII®. siecle,
as well as Vol. i, chap. 6 of I^es Finances fran9aises, by the Baron de Nervo.
Short excerpts from the ■primary authorities are to be found in three volumes
in the series edited by Zeller, Henri IV. et Sully, Henri IV. et Biron, and La Fin
de Henri IV. The chief primary authorities are the various collections of the
letters of Henry IV., including the Lettres missives, ed. Berger de Xivrey and
Guadet, 9 vols., in the Documents inedits, the Lettres intimes, a selection ed. Dus-
sieux^ and the Correspondance avec Maurice le Savant, ed. De Rommel; Benoity
Histoire de I'Edit de Nantes, 5 vols.; the first three volumes of M. Ritter, Briefe
und Acten zur Geschiclj^e des dreissigjahrigen Krieges; the Memoires of Villeroy;
the contemporary histories of Mathieu, Agrippa d'Aubigni and De Thou; the
M^moires-journaux oi U Estoile; the Chronologic novenaire and Chronologic sep-
tenaire oi Raima Cayet ; the Negociations oijeannin; the Journal of Bassompie7're;
and above all, the Economies royales, or Memoires, of Sully ^ with the recent criti-
cisms by Rfister in the Revue Historique,|lrols. 54, 55, 56.
LECTURE 3.
THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR: TO THE DEATH OF GUSTAVUS
ADOIvPHUS AND OF WALLENSTEIN.
The approach of renewed religious war in Germany : changes in Ger-
man conditions since the Peace of Augsburg (1555) ; political effect of
the Reformation ; secularisation of ecclesiastical states.
The spread of Calvinism : the Ecclesiastical Reservation ; the Coun-
ter-Reformation. lUuw
Fore warnings of the war : (i) the case of the Elector of Cologne
(1584) ; (2) the case of the city of Aix-la-Chapelle (1589); (3) the case
of the town of Donauworth (1607).
Formation of the Protestant Union (1608), and of the Cathoilc
League (1609).
The Emperor and his political position in Germany : the three lay-
electors — the Margrave of Brandenburg, the Duke of Saxony, and the
Elector Palatine ; the three ecclesiastical electors — the Archbishops of
Mayence, Cologne, and Treves ; the Duke of Bavaria.
The Emperor as head of the House of Hapsburg : his position in
The Thirty Years' War, 1618-34, 5
Bohemia, in Austria, and in Hungary ; the Emperors RudolpV II.
(1576-1612), and Matthias (1612-1619).
The disputed succession to Juliers-Cleves (1609): interference of
Henry IV. of France and the Dutch.
The outbreak of the Thirty Years' War: the " throwing from the
v^^indows" at Prague (23 May, 161 8); accession of Ferdinand II., and
election of Frederick V., Elector Palatine, who had married Elizabeth,
daughter of James I. of England, as King of Bohemia (1619); the
battle of the White Mountain (8 Nov., i62o),^nd occupation of the
Rhenish or Lower Palatinate by Spanish troops (Apr., 162 1); the
Duke of Bavaria made an Elector (1623), and granted the Upper Palat-
inate ; triumph of the Catholic League ; Tilly (b. 1559), in com-
mand of the army of the League^ defeated the Margrave of Baden at
Wimpfen (6 May, 1622), and Christian of Brunswick at Hochst (20 July,
1622) and at Stadtlohn (6 Aug., 1623).
Intervention of Christian IV., King of Denmark, in aid of the Protes-
tants (1625) : Wallenstein (b. 1583), in command of the Emperor's
army, defeated Mansfeld at Dessau. (25 Apr., 1626); death of Christian
of Brunswick (9 June); Tilly defeated the Danes at Lutter (27 Aug.);
death of Mansfeld (29 Nov.); the siege of Stralsund (1628); Christian
IV. made peace at Liibeck (22 May, 1629).
Height of the Catholic success : the Emperor Ferdinand II. issued
the Edict of Restitution (6 March, 1629); Diet of Ratisbon (1630); dis-
missal of Wallenstein.
Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, induced to come to the rescue
of Protestantism : his conquest of Pomerania (1630); the sack of Mag-
deburg by Tilly (20 May, 1631 >; the Electors of Brandenburg and
Saxony forced to join Gustavus Adolphus ; the battle of Breitenfeld or
Leipzig (17 Sept., 1631); the policy of Gustavus; his march to the
Rhine ; defeat of Tilly at the Lech (15 Apr., 1632); death of Tilly (20
Apr.); the conquest of Bavaria and the capture of Munich by Gus-
tavus ; Wallenstein recalled ; Gustavus Adolphus killed at the battle
of Liitzen (16 Nov., 1632). *
The character of Gustavus Adolphus ; his military genius ; the
Swedish nation and army ; his political schemes ; the startling changes
caused by his intervention in the Thirty Years' War, and by his death.
6 The Thirty Years' War^ i6i8-j^.
Assassination of Wallenstein (25 Feb., 1634) ; his character and po-
litical aims.
Knd of the earnest period of the Thirty Years' War.
Authorities : Of small books in Knglish, Gardiner, The Thirty Years' War,
and Fletcher, I^ife of Gustavus Adolphus, may be recommended. In French,
Charveriat, Histoire de la guerre de Trente ans, 2 vols., is readable, and in Ger-
man, Winter, Geschichte des dreissigjahrigen Krieges. The best secondary
histories for the early part of the war are, Gindely, Geschichte des dreissig-
jahrigen Krieges, 5 vols., of which a popular and abridged edition has been trans-
lated into English by Ten Brook, and Klopp, Der dreissigjahrige Krieg bis zum
Tode Gustav Adolfs, 3 vols.; Schiller, Geschichte des dreissigjahrigen Krieges, is
still read as a German classic : among more special books should be noted Huber,
Geschichte (Esterreichs, vol. v.; Gindely, Rudolf II. und seine Zeit (1608-1612),
2 vols.; Stieve, Der Ursprung des dreissigjahrigen Krieges ; Ritter, Geschichte def
Deutschen Union (1598-1612) ; Hurler, Geschichte Kaiser Ferdinands II., 4 vols.,
being vols. viii. to xi. of his Geschichte Kaiser Ferdinands 11. und seiner Eltern ;
Markham, The Fighting Veres ; Opel, Der Niedersachsich-Danische Krieg ; Droy-
sen, Gustav Adolf ; Gfrorer, Gustav Adolf, Konig von Schweden, und seine Zeit, 3
vols.; Harte, History of Gustavus Adolphus, 2 vols.; Vincent Chapman, History
of Gustavus Adolphus and of the Thirty Years' War, 2 vols.; Dodge, Gustavus
Adolphus ; Biihring, Venedig, Gustav Adolf und Rohan ;K. A. Midler, Kiirfurst
Johann Georg der Erste ; Ranke, Geschichte Wallensteins ; Gindely, Waldstein
wahrend seines ersten Generalats, 2 vols.; Forster, Wallenstein als Feldherr und
lyandesfiirst ; Vonjanko, Wallenstein ; Hurler, Zur Geschichte Wallensteins, and
Wallensteins vier letzten Ivcbensjahre ; Gddeke, Wallensteins Verhandlungen mit
den Schweden und Sachsen (1631-1634) ; Hildebrandt, Wallenstein und seine
Verbindungen mit den Schweden ; Hallwich, Wallenstein's Ende, and Gestalten
aus Wallensteins Lager ; Klopp, Tilly, and Villemiont, Tilly, and Ernest de Mans-
feldt. Among primary authorities consult Abelin, Theatrum Europaeum, 2
vols., and Arma Suecica, 4 vols.; /. L. Gottfried, Fortgesetze historische Chronick ;
Lotichius, Rerum Germanicarum sub Matthia, Ferdinandis II. et III. imperatori-
bus gestarum libri 55 ; Khevenhiiller, Annales Ferdinandei, 12 vols ; Brachelius,
Historia sui temporis ; Riccius, De bellis Germanicis libri x. ; Gualdo Priorato,
Historia delle guerre di Ferdinando II., e Ferdinando III., imperatori, e del re Fil-
ippo IV. di Spagna contra Gostava Adolfo, re di Svetia, e Luigi XIII., re di Francia
(1630-1640) ; Konung Gustaf II. Adolfs Skrifter, ed. Styffe; Irmer, Die Verhand-
lungen Schwedens und seiner Verbiindeten mit Wallenstein und dem Kaiser, 3
vols. ; Forster'' s and other collections of Wallenstein' s Letters ; M. Ritter, Briefe
und Acten zur Geschichte des dreissigjahrigen Krieges in den Zeiten des vorwal-
tenden Einflusses der Wittelsbacher, 5 vols., and Gardiner, Letters and other Doc-
uments illustrating the relations between England and Germany at the commence-
ment of the Thirty Years' War (Camden Society, 1865).
Richelieu,
LKCTURK 4.
THE POLICY OF RICHELIEU.
The government of France from the death of Henry IV. (1610) to the
ministry of Richelieu (1624) a period of court intrigues, of weakness of
the central authority, and of vacillating foreign policy.
The Regency of Marie de Medicis in the name of her son, Louis XIII.
(16 10-16 1 7): her favorites; the one event of importance the Spanish
marriages, Louis XIII. marrying Anne of Austria, daughter of Philip
III. of Spain, and Philip, the heir to the Spanish throne, marrying
Elizabeth, sister of Louis XIII. (16 12); murder of Concini, Marechal
d'Ancre (24 April, 16 17).
The States- General held in 16 14: what it was, what it might have
done, and how it failed.
The government of the favorite, the Due de Luynes (1617-1621): the
escape of Marie de Medicis from Blois (1619); the struggle between
mother and son; attack commenced on the political power of the Hu-
guenots; capture of St. Jean d'Angel)^ (1621); Peace of Montpellier
(1623).
Richelieu (b. 5 Sept., 1585; Bishop of Lu^on, 16 Apr., 1607; Car-
dinal, 5 Sept., 1622) appointed chief minister of France (19 Apr.,
1624); his early career; his character; his political aims.
Richelieu's policy:
/. To make the crown of France all-powerful by overcoming the
nobility: first conspiracy of Gaston, Duke of Orleans, the
King's brother (1626); the edict against duelling, and execu-
tion of Montmorency-Boutteville (1627) ; the " Day of
Dupes" (11 Nov., 1630); imprisonment and exile of Marie
de Medicis; intrigues of the exiles, including Gaston of
Orleans, with Lorraine and Spain; invasion of Gaston of
Orleans; execution of Montmorency (30 Oct., 1632); part
played by the queen, Anne of Austria; her relations with
the Duke of Buckingham; birth of the Dauphin (5 Sept.,
1638) ; the conspiracy of Cinq- Mars; his execution (12 Sept.,
1642).
8 Richelieu.
iu To unite the force of France by destroying the political power
of the Huguenots: the rights possessed by the Huguenots
under the Edict of Nantes; their unpatriotic spirit a remnant
of the ideas of the i6th century; the civil war of 1625-26;
the siege of La Rochelle (1627-28); help sent to the Hugue-
nots by England; the surrender of La Rochelle (28 Oct.,
1628); the Peace of Alais (^28 June, 1629), granting the
Huguenots religious liberty, but destroying their political
independence.
in. To overthrow the power of the House of Hapsburg: Riche-
lieu's adoption of part of the ' ' Grand Design' ' ; his endeavors
to assist the Protestant princes, and to cut the communica-
tion between the Hapsburgs of Austria and of Spain; mar-
riage of Charles I., of England, with Henrietta Maria (i
May. 1625); the fii;st war in Italy (1624-26); the Valteiline
restored to the Grisons; the second war in Italy (1628-30)
against Spain, the Empire and Savoy; Richelieu in the field;
Pignerol captured (22 March, 1630), and his candidate recog-
nized as Duke of Mantua by the Treaty of Cherasco (6
April, 1 631); Richelieu's support of the Protestant Nether-
lands; Richelieu and the German Protestants; Pere Joseph
at the Diet of Ratisbon (1630); Gustavus Adolphus induced
to enter Germany; his relations with Sweden; intervention
of France in the Thirty Years' War (1635).
Death of Richelieu (4 Dec, 1642), followed by that of Louis XIII.
(14 May, 1643): the relations between them; effect of Richelieu's policy
on the French monarchy and on the position of France in Europe.
Authorities : The best small book in English is Lodge, Richelieu, and refer-
ence may be made to Bridges^ France under Richelieu and Colbert. Among
secondary works, founded on documents, consult Perkins, France under Riche-
lieu and Mazarin; Perrens works cited under Lecture 2; Zeller, La minorite de
Louis XIII.; Louis XIII., Marie de Medicis, chef du conseil; Le Connetable de
Luynes; Richelieu et les ministres de Louis XIII.; Puyol, Louis XIII. et le Beam;
Bazin, Histoire de France sous Louis XIII.; Picot, Histoire des Ktats Generaux,
vols. 4, 5; Georges d'Avenel, Richelieu et la monarchic absolue, 4 vols.; Topin,
Louis XIII. et Richelieu ; Houssaye, Le Cardinal de Berulle et le Cardinal
de Richelieu; Basserie, La conjuration de Cibq-Mars ; La Garde, Le Due
The Thirty Years' War^ 16^4-^8. 9
de Rohan et les Protestants sous Louis XIIT. ; Laugel, Henry de Rohan; the Vicomte
de Meaux^ La Rdforme et la politique fran9aise en Europe, 2 vols.; Fagniez, Le
Pcre Joseph et Richelieu 2 vols.; and above all the first two volumes (all yet pub-
lished), containing the latest account of Richelieu's early years, o{ Hanotaiix, His-
loire du Cardinal de Richelieu. Among seventeenth century histories reference
should be made to Aubery, Memoircs pour Thistoire du Cardinal-Due de Riche-
lieu, 5 vols. The great primary authority is the collection of Lettrcs, instruc-
tions diplomatiques et papiers d'Etat of Richelieu, edited by Georges d'Avenelt
8 vols., in the Documents inedits; with his Maximesd' Etat in the same collection,
his Memoires, and his Memoire, ^crit de sa main, I'annee 1607 ou 1610, alors qu'il
m^ditait de paraitre a la cour, ed. Baschet. See also the Memoires of Rohan, Omer
Talon, Montglat, Brienne, Mathieu Mole, Madame de Motteville, D'Estrees and
Fotiletiay-Mareuil, the Correspondance of Cardinal de Sourdis, and the Mercure
Frangois.
LECTURE 5.
THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR : FROM 1634 TO 1648.
With the death of Gustavus Adolphus and of \yallenstein the war
ceased to be a war for religion and assumed a more political aspect;
the ruin of Germany; national and personal ambitions; the mercenary
troops and military adventurers.
Wallenstein's army brought directly under the Emperor: position
of Bernard of Saxe-Weimar (b. 1604); the Swedish armies and the pol-
icy of Chancellor Oxenstiern (b. 1583, d. 1654).
The battle of Nordlingen (5 and 6 Sept., 1634): defeat of the Swedes
under Bernard and Horn; its important results; victorious position of
the Emperor and the Catholics; the Elector of Saxony made peace
with the Emperor at Prague (30 Maj'-, 1635); the plans of Oxenstiern;
if the Swedes could have been pacified and the French had not inter-
vened, the Thirty Years' War might have ended.
The intervention of Richelieu: occupation of Lorraine ; Alsace
granted to France by the German Protestant princes for active aid
(Nov., 1634); purchase of Bernard of Saxe-Weimar and his army
(25 Oct., 1635); Richelieu's alliance with Oxenstiern (Apr., 1635);
lo The Thirty Years' War, 16^4.-^8.
his treaty with the Dutch, after the death of Isabella, for the division
of the Catholic Netherlands (8 Feb., 1635); his negotiations with the
Swiss and the Dukes of Savoy, Mantua, and Parma; effect of Richelieu's
intervention the prolongation of the war.
France invaded by the Spaniards on the northeast and by the Im-
perialists on the east (1636); the Swedish general, Baner, forced back to
the Baltic; closer alliance made between Richelieu and Oxenstiern; the
Saxons and the Imperialists defeated by Baner (b. 1595) at Wittstock
(4 Oct., 1636).
Ferdinand III. elected Kmperor (22 Dec, 1636); death of Ferdinand
II. (15 Feb., 1637).
The last years of Richelieu's foreign policy: the successes of Bernard
of Saxe- Weimar on the Rhine; his ambitions; capture of Breisach (17
Dec, 1638); death of Bernard (18 July, 1639); invasion of France by
the vSpaniards (1640); battle of Chemnitz (14 April, 1639) and death of
Baner (20 May, 1641); Richelieu's attempt to divert Spain from Ger-
man affairs by causing an insurrection in Catalonia (1640) and by en-
couraging the revolution in Portugal (1640).
The first negotiations for a general peace (1640-41) ; accession of
Frederick William as Elector of Brandenburg (1640) ; his declaration
of neutrality (1642).
The progress of the war after the death of Richelieu : rise into prom-
inence of Conde (b. 1621, d. 1686), Turenne (b. 1611, d. 1675), Torsten-
son (b. 1603, d. 1651), and Wrangel (b. 1613, d. 1676); Spain unable
to assist the Emperor without further subsidies ; destruction of the Im-
perial and Saxon army by Torstenson at Breitenfeld (2 Nov., 1642);
outbreak of war between Denmark and Sweden (1643), ended by the
Treaty of Bromsebro (1645) ; Conde' s defeat of the Spaniards at Rocroi
(19 May, 1643) »* reorganization of Bernard's army by Turenne.
Congresses for the consideration of terms of peace meet at Osnabriick
and Miinster.
The battles of Freiburg (3-5 Aug., 1644), where Turenne and Conde
defeated Mercy, and of Jankau (6 March, 1645), where Torstenson de-
stroyed an Imperialist army ; truce made by the Elector of Saxony
with the Swedes (31 Aug., 1645) ; the battles of Marienthal (5 May,
1645), where Mercy defeated Turenne, and of AUersheim (3 Aug., 1645),
The Treaties of Westphalia, II
in which Mercy was killed ; the invasion of Bavaria : the Elector Max-
imilian forced to make a truce at Ulm (15 March, 1647) J Turenne and
Wrangel defeated the Bavarians and Imperalists at Zusmarshausen (17
May, 1648) ; Conde's defeat of the Spaniards at Lens (10 Aug., 1648) ;
the Castle of Prague seized by the Swedes under Konigsmark (26 July,
1648).
The Thirty Years' War concluded by the Treaties of Westphalia ( 24
October, 1648) : peace made by the Emperor with France and Sweden,
but Spain remained at war with France.
Authorities : Gardiner, The Thirty Years' War, is the best small book in
English ; Gindely should be replaced among secondary authorities by Bart-
holdy Geschichte des grossen deutschen Krieges vom Tode Gustav Adolfs ab, niit
besondere Riicksicht auf Frankreich, 2 vols. ; Droysen, Bernhard von Weimar, 2
vols.; Sugenkehn, Frankreich's Einfluss auf und Beziehungen zu Deutschland, vol.
i.; Koch, Geschichte des deutschen Reichs unter der Regierung Ferdinands III.,
2 vols.; Des Roberts, Campagnes de Charles IV., due de Lorraine (1634-1636);
Heilmann, Die Feldziige den Bayern in 1643, 1644 und 1645 ; Dudik, Die
Schwedeu in Bohmen und Mahren (1640-1650) ; Biedemtann, Deutschlands
triibste Zeit, oder Der dreissigjahrige Krieg in seine Folgen fiir den deutsche Cul-
turleben ; the Due d'Aiimdle, Histoire des princes de la maison de Cond^, vols. 5,
6. The primary authorities as for Lecture 3, with the addition of Georges d*
Avenel, Richelieu's Letters, cited for Lecture 4 ; SzHagyi, Actes et Documents pour
servir a I'histoire de I'alliance de Rakoczy avec les Fran^ais et les Suddois ; Bou-
geant, Histoire du Traite de Westphalie, 6 vols., and Axel Oxenstiema' s Skriflen
och Brefvexling, 6 vols., and omitting Gardiner, Letters, Styffe, Irtner and Wal-
lenstein.
LECTURE 6.
THE TREATIES OF WESTPHALIA.
The history of the Treaties of Westphalia : a congress for peace re-
solved upon in 1641 ; suggested by the Elector of Mayence in 1639 ;
approved by the Imperial Diet at Ratisbon (1640-41); suggestion that
two congresses, in one of which the Emperor should deal with the
Swedes. Dutch and Protestant princes, and in the other with France,
12 The Treaties of Westphalia.
should be held to arrange terms of peace, at Liibeck and Cologne ; at
the wish of the Swedes Osnabriick and Miinster chosen instead; by a
resolution of the Imperial Diet, with the assent of the Kmperor, the Ger-
man princes and free cities allowed to be represented at the congresses.
Meeting of the congresses (1644) • Cardinal Chigi, Papal Nuncio,
and Contarini, Venetian ambassador, were present as mediators ; Traut-
mannsdorf, Nassau an^^V^lmar, Lamberg and Crane were prej^ent for
the Emperor ; Longuevme, D^Avaux, GrouUart and Abel Servien for
France ; John Oxenstiern and Salvius for Sweden; Penaranda, the
Archbishop of Cambrai, Saavedra and Brun for Spain ; and Adrian
de Pauw, with seven others, for the United Provinces ; delays about
precedence ; the envoys of France and Sweden presented their demands
(June, 1645) ; effect of the military operations on the negotiations ; the
part played by the Elector of Bavaria ; the Treaties of Westphalia
signed at Miinster (24 October, 1648).
Chief points of the Treaties of Westphalia:
A. With regard to non-German states:
/. France received the Three Bishoprics (Metz, Toul and Verdun)
occupied in 1552, Alsace, except Strasburg and reserving
the rights of the Empire, Breisach and the right to garrison
Philipsburg, and Pignerol; the Dufee oJ[ Lorraine not to be
aided by the Emperor and left to niake^a*. separate treaty
with France.
ii. Sweden received Western Pomerania wnth the island of Riigipn,
Stettin, Wismar, the archbishopric of Bremen and the bisho-
pric of Verden, with representation in the Diet of the
Empire.
Hi. The Swiss cantons were recognized as independent of the
Empire.
iv. The Protestant Netherlands, which had been recognized as
independent of Spain by Philip IV. (30 Jan., 1648), were
declared independent of the Empire, and received certain
districts in Brabant and Luxemburg.
B. With regard to German states:
/. Brandenburg received, in compensation for Western Pomerania,
the archbishopric of Magdeburg, and the bishoprics of Hal-
The Treaties of Westphalia, 13
berstadt, Cammin and Minden. [The succession to Cleves-
Julierswas settled in 1666 by Brandenburg receiving Cleves,
the Mark and Ravensberg, and Neuburg receiving Juliers
and Berg.]
ii. Saxony retained Lusatia and part of Magdeburg.
Hi, Mecklenburg received, in compensation for Wismar, the bis-
hoprics of Schwerin and Ratzeburg.
iv. Hesse-Cassel received the abbey of Hirschfeld.
V. Bavaria received the Upper Palatinate and retained the elec-
torate conferred in 1623.
vi, Charles Louis, eldest son of the expelled Elector Palatine, re-
ceived the lyower or Rhenish Palatinate, and a new electorate
was created for him.
C. With regard to the religious question:
/. The terms of the Peace of Augsburg were confirmed, fixing
the date for ecclesiastical property at i Jan., 1624.
ii. The Ecclesiastical Reservation was acknowledged by the
Protestants.
Hi. Calvinism was recognized as well as Lutheranism.
D. With regard to the Empire (efiect of the book " Hippolithus a
L,apide " ) :
/. Territorial supremacy, including the right of making alliances,
granted to the States of the Empire.
ii. Powers of the Imperial Diet (Reichstag) defined.
Hi. Concurrent jurisdiction of the Imperial Chamber (Reichskam-
mergericht) and Aulic Council (Reichshofrath) acknowl-
edged.
K. General amnesty declared, and the Peace of Westphalia made a
fundamental law of the Empire.
Effect of the Treaties of Westphalia on Germany: the practical dis-
integration of the Holy Roman Empire.
Effect of the Treaties of Westphalia on Europe: commencement
of a new era, in which political succeeded religious distinctions.
Authorities : All secondary histories of the Thirty Years' War devote their
concluding chapters to the Treaties of Westphalia, but see also Kennter, Abel
Servien; Odhner, Die Politik Schwedens im Westphalischen Friedenscongress •
14 The Fronde,
J. S. Putter, Geist des Westphalischen Friedes,aiid his Historical Development of
the Political Constitution of the Germanic Empire, vol. ii. The primary au-
thorities are, for the terms of the treaties, /. G. von Meiern, Acta Pacis West-
phalicae oder Westphalische Friedeshandlungen und Geschichte, 6 vols.; and,
for the history of the negotiations, Bougeant, Histoire du Traite de Westphalie,
useful as being founded on D'Avaux, Memoires; Contarini, Relazione del con-
gresso di Munster; Ogier, Journal du Congres de Munster (1643-47); and the Cor-
respondencia diplomatica de los plenipotenciarios E^^paiioles en el congreso de
Munster, 1643-1648 (vols. 82-84 of the CoUeccion de documentos ineditos).
LKCTURK 7.
THE FRONDE AND THE TREATY OF THE PYRENEES.
Richelieu on his deathbed (1642) named Mazarin his succcessor; six
months later the child, Louis XIV. (b. 5 Sep^., 1838), succeeded to the
throne of France ; the Parlement of Paris declared Anne of Austria,
the queen-mother, Regent ; she gave both power and affection to
Mazarin; character and previous career of Mazarin (Giulio Mazarini,
b. 1602; entered the French service and became cardinal, 1639).
Mazariu followed accurately Richelieu's foreign policy; during his
administration Conde and Turenne won their first victories and the
Treaties of Westphalia were signed.
What France gained by the Treaties of Westphalia: a foothold on the
Rhine by the annexation of Alsace, which also enabled her to surround
the independent Duchy of Lorraine and the Spanish province of
Franche-Comte.
Spain refused to make peace with France at Miinster owing to the
outbreak of the civil war known as the " Fronde."
The nature of the Fronde : * ' playing at civil war " ; its fruitlessness
and intrigues ; the ' ' importants ' ' ; the Mazarinades.
The Fronde, first phase (1648-49) : part played by the Parlement of
Paris and the Parisians ; arrest of Broussel (26 Aug., 1648) ; the '' bar-
ricades ' ' ; Conde and the Court ; Conde and Mazarin ; the Peace of
Rueil (11 March, 1649) ; flight of the Court from Paris ; second phase
V'
The Treaty of the Pyrenees. 15
(1650-51): arrest of Conde (18 Jan., 1650); France invaded by Tu-
renne with a Spanish army ; the battle of Rethel (15 Dec, 1650) ;
union of the "princely" and the "parliamentary" Frondes; the
Cardinal de Retz (b. 1614, d. 1679) ; Mazarin in voluntary exile (6
Feb. 1651) ; third phase (1651-52): Conde's insurrection in the south ;
return of Mazarin (Dec, 1651) ; the royal party joined by Turenne ;
battle of the Faubourg Saint- Antoine (2 July, 1652) ; Mazarin again in
exile (19 Aug., 1652) ; fourth phase (1652-53) ; the king and the queen-
mother once more in Paris (21 Oct., 1652) ; Conde welcomed by the
Spaniards ; De Retz imprisoned ; Gaston of Orleans exiled to Blois ;
final return of Mazarin (2 Feb., 1653) ; end of the Fronde.
Mazarin' s foreign policy : the war with Spain pursued with vigor ;
Turenne commanding the French and Conde the Spanish army ; Ma-
zarin's alliance with Cromwell (3 March, 1657); the battle of the
Dunes (14 June, 1658); capture of Dunkirk and advance on Brussels;
formation of the League of the Rhine (14 Aug., 1658) ; the new Em-
peror, Leopold I. (elected 1657), bound by the terms of his capitulation
not to send help to Spain.
Negotiations for peace with Spain : Mazarin's hands freed by the
death of Cromwell (3 Sept., 1658).
The Treaty of the Pyrenees signed by Mazarin and Don Luis de Haro
in the Isle of Pheasants (7 Nov., 1659).
Its terms : (i) France received Roussillon, Artois, and parts of Flan-
ders, Hainault and Luxemburg.
(2) Spain abandoned all claims to Alsace.
(3) Charles IV., Duke of Lorraine, was to cede the Barrois and cer-
tain towns to France, but to recover Lorraine, in which all the for-
tresses were to be dismantled; (Charles IV. did not accept these condi-
tions, and by a later treaty (28 Feb., 1661) received back the Barrois as
a fief of France, ceded the towns mentioned in the Treaty of Pyrenees
and others to France, and agreed to dismantle Nancy).
(4) The Prince de Conde was to be forgiven and reinstated.
(5) France abandoned the King of Portugal.
(6) Louis XIV. was to marry Maria Theresa, elder daughter of
Philip IV., King of Spain : she was to renounce forever, for herself and
her descendants, all rights of succession to the throne of Spain, on pay-
ment of a dowry of 500,000 crowns.
1 6 Mazarin,
Importance of the Treaty of the Pyrenees as the supplement to the
Treaties of Westphalia.
Marriage of Louis XIV. to the Infanta (9 June, 1660).
Death of Mazarin (9 March, 1661) ; success of his foreign policy ; his
internal policy ; neglect of the finances ; destruction of feudal castles in
France.
lyife and work of Saint Vincent de Paul (1576-1660).
Authorities : The best secondary histories, founded on documents, for the
administration of Mazarin are Cheruel, Histoire de la France pendant la minorite
de lyouis XIV., 4 vols., and Histoire de la France sous le ministere de Mazarin, 3
vols. ; Perkins^ France under Richelieu and Mazarin ; Comte de Cosnac, Mazarin
et Colbert ; Bazm, Histoire de France sous le ministere du Cardinal Mazarin ;
Gaillardin, Histoire du regne de Louis XIV., vols, i, 2 ; Comte de Sainte-Aulaire,
Histoire de la Fronde, 2 vols. ; Due d'Aumdle, Histoire des Princes de Conde,
vols. 5. 6, 7 ; Victor Cousin, La jeunesse de Mazarin, Madame de Longueville, 2
vols., Madame de Sable, Madame de Chevreuse and Madame de Hautefort ; Cuk-
nier^ Le Cardinal de Retz et son temps; Chantelauze, Louis XIV. et Marie Mancini,
Le Cardinal de Retz et I'afFaire du chapeau, and Saint Vincent de Paul et les
Gondi; Perey, Louis XIV. et Marie Mancini; Cherot, La premiere jeunesse de Louis
XIV.; Renee, Les nieces de Mazarin; Valfrey, Hugues de Lionne ; Vast, Les grands
traites du regne de Louis XIV. ; Barante, Vie de Mathieu Mole ; Feillet, La Misere
au temps de la Fronde ; Loth, Saint" Vincent de Paul et sa mission sociale ; Em-
manuel de Broglie, Saint Vincent de Paul ; Bourelly, Cromwell et Mazarin, and
Le marechal de Fabert ; and Tessier, Le Chevalier de Jant et les relations de la
France avec le Portugal au temps de Mazarin. Several volumes have been pub-
lished on the local history of the Fronde, among which may be noted Saint-Marc,
Bordeaux sous la Fronde, Debidour, La Fronde angevine, Audiat, La Fronde en
Saintonge, and Salomon, La Fronde en Bretagne. The chief primary authority
is the collection, ed. by CkSruel, of the Lettres du Cardinal Mazarin pendant son
ministere, 8 vols., in the Documents in^dits ; and use may be made of Turenne^
Correspondance inedite avec Le Tellier et Louvois, ed. Barthelemy ; Estrades, Am-
bassades et negotiations en Italie, en Angleterre, et en Hollande depuis 1637 jusqu'en
1662 ; Moreau, Choix de Mazarinades, 2 vols.; the Journal of Olivier Lefevre d'Or-
messon ; and the Lettres of Qui Patin : for the period of the Fronde there are
many interesting personal memoirs, to be used with caution, among which may be
noted the M€mo\r&so^ Madame de Motteville,Omer Talon, Gourville, Mademoiselle
de Montpensier, Montglat, Brienne, Guy Joly, Mathieu MoU, Fontenay-Mareuil,
La Rochefoucauld, and above all, those of Cardinal de Retz, with the addition of
the Historiettes of Tallemant des Reaux, and Loret, La Muze Historique, ed. Ra-
venel qnr^ La Pelouze.
Franci, 17
LECTURE 8.
EUROPE IN THE MIDDI.E OF THE 17TH CENTURY.
I. FRANCE.
Importance of the study of the history of France in the 17th century
rests on the fact that, during the Age of Louis XIV., its institutions
were copied all over Europe, while its foreign policy was the keynote
of political history; it was France w^hich led the way to strong central
government at home, supported by standing armies, and the adoption
of foreign alliances independent of religious considerations.
Government of France as moulded by Richelieu and Mazarin for the
use of Louis XIV.
i. The Monarchy: growth of its powers; its strength; the Court.
it. The Nobility: blows dealt by Richelieu; tendency to become
a caste; distinction between grande and petite noblesse; sur-
vival of privilege.
in. The Church in France: its struggle with the Huguenots; con-
trast between Galilean and Ultramontane ideas.
iv. The Central Administration: its strengthening, the great aim
of the French monarchy; creation of the "intendants."
V. Local Administration : distinction between pays d' election
and pays d'Etats ; the provincial Estates ; the cities and
towns; privileges of the municipalities; the ** Bourgeoisie."
w. The Judicial Administration: the Parlement of Paris having
jurisdiction, and being court of appeals in criminal matters,
over half of France; the seven provincial Parlements of Bor-
deaux, Dijon, Rennes, Rouen, Toulouse, Aix and Grenoble;
Louis XIII. created two at Pau (1620) and at Metz (1633),
and Louis XIV. two more at Tournai (1668), moved to
Douai (1713), and at Besangjon (1676); the " Noblesse de la
Robe' ' ; the strength of the bar; the pays du droit coutumier
and the pays du droit ^crit.
1 8 France.
viz. The Financial Administration: the farmers-general; the taille,
. the gabelle, the aides, the douanes.
viii. Manufactures and Commerce: I^yons, Marseilles, Bordeaux,
Dieppe and I^e Havre; the guilds; the ouvriers.
ix. Agriculture: the seigneur, the farmer and the peasant; grande
culture and petite culture; '' copyhold " tenure and its relics
of feudalism; ' * noble land. ' '
X. The condition of the poor : hospitals ; charit5^
xi. Material condition : roads and canals ; public works.
xii. Intellectual condition : education ; colleges and village
schools ; the Academic Frangaise (1635) ; provincial acade-
mies ; the press, pamphlets and newspapers ; foundation of
the Gazette by Renaudot (1631).
xiii. The army and navy: their organization; their control concen-
trated in the hands of the monarchy.
Position of France in Europe in the middle of the 17th century.
i. Geographical conditions : additions -made hy Richelieu and
Mazarin ; desire for a defensible frontier ; boundaries of lan-
guage and race disregarded ; Alsace ; independence of lyor-
raine ; Franche-Comte subject to Spain and Avignon to the
Pope.
ii. Growth of political tradition : the Foreign Office ; the diplo-
matists.
Extra-European expansion of France.
/. New France : Canada and Acadia ; efforts at colonization.
ii. The French Antilles: their importance to France.
Hi. The French East- India Company of Richelieu (1640) : Mada-
gascar.
Strength and weakness of France in the 17th century.
Authorities : The chapters on the condition of France in the secondary bis-
tories, noted under Lectures 2, 4 and 7, and especially in Hanotaux, Histoire du
Cardinal de Richelieu, vol. i., in Georges d^Avenel, Richelieu et la monarchie abso-
lue, and Cheruely Histoire de la France pendant la minority de Louis XIV., and
Histoire de la France sous le ministere de Mazarin. See also Cheruely Histoire de
I'administration monarchique en France, 2 vols. ; Dareste^ Histoire de Tadminis-
tration et des progres du pouvoir royal en France ; Caillet, ly'administration en
The Empire. 19
Prance sous le minist^re de Richelieu ; Gasquet, Prdcis des institutions politiquea
et sociales de I'ancienne France ; Lugay, Les origines du pouvoir minist^riel en
France : les Secretaires d'Etat depuis leur institution jusqu'd la mort de Louia
XV. ; Hanotaux, Origine de I'institution dcs inteudants des provinces ; Bastard
d'Estang^ Les parlements de France ; Nervo, I^es finances fran9aises, 2 vols. ;
Claniageran^ Histoire de I'impot en France, 3 vols. ; Fagniez, L'^conomie sociale
de la France sous Henri IV. ; Levasseur, Histoire des classes ouvrieres en France,
2 vols. ; Dareste, Histoire des classes agricoles en France ; Susane, Histoire de
I'ancienne infanterie fran9aise, 8 vols., and Histoire de la cavalerie franjaise, 3
vols. ; Guirin, Histoire maritime de la France, 6 vols. ; Gougeard, hs. marine de
guerre sous Richelieu et Colbert ; Gi/les de la Tourette, Theophraste Renaudot ;
Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New World ; Boyer-Peyreleau, Les Antilles
fran^aises ; Dessalles, Histoire g^n^rale des Antilles ; Bonassieux, Les grandea
compagnies de (otnmerce. and Castonnet des Fosses^ L'Inde franjaise avant
Dupleix.
LECTURE 9.
EUROPE IN THE MIDDLE OF THE 17TH CENTURY.
2. THE EMPIRIC, THS HOUSE OF AUSTRIA, AND THE GERMAN PRINCES.
The Holy Roman Empire, in its inception the lay authority ruling
Western Europe in conjunction with the Papacy, became towards the
close of the Middle Ages the ruling power in Germany, and by the
Treaties of Westphalia lost even that function.
The form, precedence and tradition of the Empire remained the only
symbol of German unity, and the different states and categories of
states of the Empire must be regarded as independent political units,
very loosely federated.
There were about 360 sovereign princes in Germany and about 50
free cities.
The constitution of the Empire: (i) the elective Emperor; (2) the
Imperial Diet comprising (i) the College of Electors, consisting of seven
members; (ii) the College of Princes, consisting of about one hundred
voices (some princes had more than one voice, e, g,, Brandenburg six,
20 The Hapshurg Dominions,
Sweden four, etc., while the petty princes in Franconia and Swabia
elected representatives, known as "collegiate" voices); (iii) the Col-
lege of Free Cities; (3) the Imperial Chamber; (4) the Aulic Council;
(5) the Circles.
Distinction between immediate and mediate members of the Holy-
Roman Empire.
The Diet of Ratisbon declared perpetual (1663) and resident envoys
took the place of Princes and Electors.
The House of Hapsburg the most powerful in Germany from its
hereditary dominions, more than from the repeated election of its head
as Emperor; but its expansion was henceforth toward the east and not
toward the west, and it gradually ceased to act chiefly for German
interests. ' f
The dominions of the House of Hapsburg :
(i) Austria proper, Styria. Carinthia, etc. [the Tyrol ceded by Fer-
dinand II. to his brother (1623) reverted to the Austrian dominions
(1665)]; their administration; the powers of the provincial Diets and
extent of local self-government. ^ ^
(2) Bohemia: a home of Protestantism; its sufferings during the
Thirty Years' War; deprivation of its local autonomy and attempts at
Germanizing the Czechs.
(3) Part of Hungary: divisions of the kingdom of St. Stephen at
the commencement of the 17th century:
(i) Transylvania yt^o82 square miles : its diverse races, Magyar,
German, Romanian, Slav, and its diverse religions, Roman
Catholic, Eutheran, Calvinist and Greek Church; the reign
and policy of Gabriel Bethlen (1613-29); George Rakoczy
I. (1629-48); George Rakoczy II. (1648-60); spasmodic in-
tervention in the Thirty Years' War; encouragement of
Protestantism; wary policy needed for maintenance of inde-
pendence. "(O'KOdO
(ii) Turkish Hungary: 1859 square miles : its condition under
Turkish rule,
(iii) Hapsburg Hungary, governed by the. Palatine : 1222 square
miles : the power of the Diet ; progress of the Counter- Re-
formation; the work of Cardinal Pazmany (primate 16 16-
Germany. 21
37); national policy of Nicholas Esterhazy (palatine 1625-
45); Peace of I^inz (1645), recognizing the rights of Protes-
tants.
Administration of the hereditary dominions of the House of Austria:
the councils at Vienna; the army and foreign politics; the influence of
the Jesuits.
The ecclesiastical electorates: Mayence, Cologne and Treves.
The lay electorates:
(i) Saxony: its condition at the Treaties of Westphalia; its wealth
and compactness; the Elector the recognized chief of the German Pro-
testants; policy of John George I. (1611-1656); the ambitions of Sax-
5jny turn eastward.
(2) Brandenburg: the Elector John Sigismund recognized as Duke
bi Prussia (161 8), as a feudatory of Poland; the claims on Pomerania
and Juliers-Cleves ; the policy of George William, brother-in-law of
Gustavus Adolphus, during the Thirty Years' War; accession of the
Great Elector (1640); compensation for Pomerania and settlement of
Juliers-Cleves pase (1666) gave Brandenburg an increased German
interest; Brandenburg's advantages from the Northern War (1656-60).
(3) Bavaria: the Elector Maximilian (i 596-1 651) and the Counter-
Reformation; his part in the Thirty Years' War.
(4) The Palatinate: importance of its position on the Rhine with
regard to France.
The lay princes of the Empire: their varying power; introduction of
primogeniture in i6th and 17th centuries; its effects; their love of
independence.
The ecclesiastical princes of the Empire: the Catholic and Protestant
bishoprics; their chapters take the place of provincial Estates or Diets
and make their government oligarchical.
The free cities of the Empire: their decline during the Thirty Years'
War; decay of the Hanseatic League; only Hamburg, Bremen and
Liibeck renew the League (1630); trade passes to the Dutch and the
English.
The knights of the Empire: their dependence on the Emperor.
General character of the administration in Germany: the provincial
Diets; tendency to imitate France.
22 The Netherlands.
Depopulation and misery caused by the Thirty Years' War; poverty
of Germany.
Intellectual condition: the foundation of universities and academies.
Authorities : Among books in English may be noted Leger^ Autriche-Hongrie,
translated by Mrs. Blrkbeck Hill, Coxe^ History of the House of Austria, 4 vols.,
and Vehse, Memoirs of the Court, Aristocracy and Diplomacy of Austria, 2 vols., for
Austria; Tuttle, History of Prussia, vol. i., and Carlyle, History of Frederick the
Great, vol. i., for Prussia; and Putter, Historische Entwickelung der heutigen
Staatsverfassung des deutschen Reichs, translated by Dornford, vol. 2, for the
Holy Roman Empire. All histories, whether of the Empire or of separate states,
give a general review of the condition of Germany at the time of the Treaties of
Westphalia, but special reference may be made to Erdmannsdorffer ^ Deutsche
Geschichte, 1 648-1 740, vol. i., Biedennann ^ Deutschlands triibste Zeit, oder Der
dreissigjahrige Krieg in seine Folgen fur den deutsche Cultureleben and Hanser
Deutschland nach dem dreissigjahrige Kriege.
I^ECTURE 10.
EUROPE IN THE MIDDLE OF THE lyTn CENTURY.
3. THE NETHERI^ANDS.
The situation of the Netherlands at the beginning of the century :
the Protestant Netherlands, the seven United Provinces of Holland,
Zealand, Gelderland, Friesland, Utrecht, Groningen and Overyssel, had
practically secured their independence ; the Catholic Netherlands (now
Belgium) were governed by the Infanta Isabella (i599-i633),to whom
they had been granted as dowry by Philip II.
The constitution of the United Provinces : difference in character of
the seven provinces ; their local independence ; the provincial Estates ;
the weak federal power of the States- General, consisting of one vote for
each province ; the Council of State of twelve members, three for Hol-
land, two each for Zealand, Friesland and Gelderland, and one each for
the remaining provinces, with two votes for the Captain-General and Ad-
The Netherlands, 23
miral-General ; the executive authority in each province was held by the
Stadtholder of the province ; the executive authority of the Union was
held by the Captain- and Admiral- General.
William the Silent, Prince of Orange, had been Stadtholder of three
provinces, as well as Captain- and Admiral-General ; his son Maurice
( 1 585-1 625) was Stadtholder of five provinces, and after 1620 of all the
provinces but Friesland, as well as Captain- and Admiral General.
The two parties in the Protestant Netherlands : the supporters of the
Stadtholder, Maurice of Nassau (b. 1567), and the republicans led by
John van Olden Barneveldt (b. 1547), Advocate of the province of Hol-
land ; the strength of the former among the country gentlemen, noble-
men and peasants ; of the latter among the burghers of the cities, and
especially of Amsterdam ; the former was the war and the latter the
peace party.
The war of independence with Spain closed by a twelve years' truce,
negotiated by Henry IV. of France (1609),
The political struggle combined with a religious difference : the Ar-
minians, or Remonstrants, against the Gomarists, or Calvinists ; the
Synod of Dort condemned the Arminians (16 18) ; execution of Barne-
veldt (19 May, 16 1 9) ; the province of Holland forced to ask the confir-
mation by the Stadtholder of the election of its Pensionary, the leading
civil officer.
The end of the truce (1621) : part played by the Dutch in the Thirty
Years' War ; Maurice and his brother, Frederick Henry (1625- 1647),
the Stadtholders, occupied Cleves and resisted Spanish invasion ; great-
ness of Frederick Henry ; his son married to Mary, daughter of Charles
I. of England, and his daughter to Frederick William, the Great Elec-
tor of Brandenburg.
The Catholic Netherlands under Isabella remained contented with
their local government and in comparative tranquility, but when France
joined in the Thirty Years' War, Artois was occupied, and, after Maz-
arin's treaty with Cromwell, the English and French conquered nearly
up to Brussels ; by the Treat}^ of the Pyrenees, Artois was ceded to
France (1659).
By the Treaty of Miinster (30 Jan., 1648) with Spain, the Dutch
promised to support the Spanish rights to the Catholic Netherlands in
24 The Dutch,
return for closing the Scheldt to commerce ; by this means the United
Provinces secured a buffer against France, and Amsterdam secured
commercial supremacy at the expense of Antwerp.
William II. (b. 1626), elected Stadtholder of all the provinces but
Friesland (1647), disapproved of the reduction of the army as a result
of peace ; he resolved on a coup d'etat ; attempt to seize Amsterdam
(30 July, 1650); death of William II. (6 Nov., 1650); birth of William
III. (14 Nov., 1650; ; the offices of Captain- and Admiral- General abol-
ished ; the Stadtholderate of five provinces left vacant ; William Fred-
erick of Nassau, Stadtholder of Friesland, obtained the Stadtholderate
of Groningen ; government divided between the States- General and
the provincial Estates ; election of John de Witt (b. 1625) as Pension-
ary of Holland (1653) in the place of Adrian de Pauw ; the province
of Holland and John de Witt took the direction of Dutch policy.
War between England and the United Provinces (1652-54) owing to
the Navigation Act passed by the English Parliament and aimed at the
Dutch carrying trade ; act excluding William III. forever from the
Stadtholderate of Holland passed at the wish of Cromwell (1654) ;
repealed (1661) ; Perpetual Edict abolishing the Stadtholderate in Hol-
land and Utrecht (1667).
The prosperity of the Dutch in the first half of the 17th century :
their naval and commercial monopoly; its causes ; its political, social
and material effects.
The Dutch in Asia : the first voyage of Houtman (1596); they seize
the spice and pepper trade ; foundation of Batavia (1619); rivalry with
the English ; massacre of Amboyna (1623) ; expulsion of the Portu-
guese; settlements at the Cape of Good Hope and in India, Ceylon,
the Spice Islands, China and Jap^n.
The Dutch in South America : their establishment in Brazil (1624-
37) ; the government and great views of John Maurice of Nassau-
Siegen (b. 1604, in Brazil 1637-44, d. 1679); their expulsion by the
Portuguese (1655).
The Dutch in North America : foundation of New Amsterdam ; the
New Netherlands and the emigration thither.
Contrast between the Protestant and the Catholic Netherlands.
Authorities: Motley ^ History of the United Netherlands, vols. 3 and 4, and
Sweden. 25
Life and Death of John of Barneveldt, 2 vols. ; Wenzelburger, Geschichte der
Niederlande. (t > 1648); Kervyn de Letienhove, La Flandre pendant les trois demiers
si^cles, 3 vols.; Groen van Prinsferer, Archives ou correspondance inddite de la
maison d' Orange-Nassau, 6 vols. ; A. Waddington, La Rdpublique des Provinces-
Unies, la France et les Pays-Bas espagnols de 1630 4 1650 ; Van der Capellen, Ge-
denkschriften ; Left^vre-Pontalis, Jean de Witt, translated into English ; Cotnbes,
Correspondance Franfaise du grand pensionnaire Jean de Witt ; Geddes, History
of the Administration of John de Witt, vol. i. ; Meinsma, Geschiedenis van de
Nederlandsche Oost-Indische Bezittingen, 2 vols.; De Jonge, De Opkomst van het
Nederlandsch Gezag in Oost-Indie, 14 vols., and the documents published by
Aitzema and Sylvius y and by the Utrecht Historical Society.
LECTURE 11.
EUROPE IN THE MIDDLE OF THE 17TH CENTURY.
' 4- SWEDEN AND DENMARK,
Sweden at the commencement of the 17th century: it had been sepa-
rated from Denmark and Norway by the valour of Gustavus Vasa (1523);
the Reformation in Sweden; the people became sturdy Protestants;
reigns of Eric XIV. (1560-68) and John III. (1568-92); expulsion of
the son of John III., Sigismund Vasa, who had been elected King of
Poland (1587), on account of his Catholicism, and election of Charles v^
IX., youngest son of Gustavus Vasa (1598); reign of Charles IX. ^:^---'
(1598-1611), a reign of perpetual war with the Danes, Poles and
Russians. - ' ^ -o^ - '> ^
Accession of Gustavus Adolphus (b. 1594), son of Charles IX. (161 1):
his vigor and military skill; he defeated the Danes and forced them to
make peace at Knarod (16 13); his campaigns against the Russians; by
the Treaty of Stolbovo (16 17) he restored Novgorod, but retained Fin«
land, Carelia, Ingria and Esthonia; his marriage to Maria Eleanor,
sister of the Elector George William of Brandenburg (1620); his wars
with his cousin, Sigismund, of Poland, whom he defeated both on sea
26 Sweden.
and land (1621-29); by the Truce of Altmark (16 Sept., 1629), Sweden
kept lyivonia; Gustavus Adolphus then rqsolved to intervene in the
Thirty Years' War.
The constitution of Sweden: the restrictions on the royal authority;
the royal title — "elected king and hereditary prince"; the Diet (Riks-
dag); its four orders — nobility, clergy, bourgeoisie, peasants; its pre-
rogatives fixed (1617); the Senate (Riksrad); its composition and
functions. \ v^
The position acquired by Sweden by the Treaties of Westphalia: the
chief territorial power on the Baltic, as ruler of Finland, Carelia, Ingria,
Esthonia, Livonia and Western Pomerania, with an outlet on the North
Sea as possessor of Bremen and Verden; she controlled the mouths of
the Elbe, the Weser and the Oder, but her own southern provinces
were occupied by Denmark.
Sweden recognized as the chief military power in Europe.
The Chancellor, Axel Oxenstiern (b. 1583, d. 1654): his policy; his
organization of the Swedish monarchy on an oligarchical basis; the
material condition of Sweden; its sturdy Lutheranism.
The reign of Queen Christina (b. 1626), only child of Gustavus Adol-
phus (1634-54): her assumption of the direction of affairs (1644) on the
outbreak of war with Denmark; the Treaty of Bromsebro (13 Aug.,
1645); her influence in favor of peace in the negotiations at Osnabriick;
her internal government; abdication in favor of her cousin, Charles
Gustavus of Deux-Ponts or Zweibriicken (6 June, 1654); her fondness
for literature and science; her later life; she became a Catholic (1655),
and died at Rome (19 April, T68g\
The reign of Charles X. (b. 1622): as a soldier he desired to utilize
the Swedish army; his conquest of Poland (1656); previous relations be-
tween Poland and Sweden; the conduct of the Great Elector; Charles X.
attacked Denmark (1657), and by the Treaty of Roskild (7 March, 1658)
obtained the Danish provinces in Sweden, namely, Halland and Scania,
with the island of Bornholm; his proposal to divide Denmark, and attack
on Copenhagen (1659); interference of the Dutch and other powers;
death of Charles X. (23 Feb., 1660).
Accession of Charles XI. (b. 1655): regency of the queen-mother,
Hedwiga of Holstein-Gottorp; the war closed, owing to the mediation
Denmark, 27
of the powers, by the Treaty of Oliva with Poland, by which Poland
ceded Lithuanian Livonia to Sweden and John Casimir resigned his
claims to the Swedish throne (3 May, 1660), by the Treaty of Copen-
hagen with Denmark, confirming that of Roskild (7 June, 1660), and
by that of Kardis with Russia (t July, 1661), confirming the cession to
Sweden of Ingria and Carelia.
Position of the kingdom of Denmark and Norway at the Treaties of
Westphalia : it included the southern provinces of Sweden, and thus
controlled the commerce of the Baltic ; relations with the Empire ow-
ing to the connection with Schleswig and Holstein.
The aristocratic constitution of Denmark ; the monarchy elective ;
all power in the hands of the Senate (Rigsraad) ; the Diet (Rigsdaag)
never called ; the peasants reduced to serfdom.
The rivalry^etween Denmark and Sweden the keynote of Danish
foreign policy : the reign of Christian IV. (i 588-1648); his court ; his
fondness for Norway and foundation of Christiania ; his misfortunes
during the Thirty Years' War ; foundation of the Danish East India
Company (1615) and occupation of Tranquebar in India.
The reign of Frederick III. (1648-70J : the government of Ulfeldt
and the nobles ; Ulfeldt joined Charles X. of Sweden and induced him
to attack Denmark ; Denmark's losses by the Treaty of Roskild. i^rL^W*^
The Revolution of 1660 : overthrow of the power of the nobles'Tthe
monarchy of Denmark made hereditary and absolute ; regular meet-
ings of the Diet or States- General promised, but it was never called ;
resumption of lands granted to noblemen ; improvement in adminis-
tration.
The Germanizing of Denmark ; the situation in Norway ; its pov-
erty and hatred for Sweden.
The supremacy of the Baltic moved from Denmark to Sweden.
Authorities : As small books see Otte, Scandinayian History; Bain, Christina,
Queen of Sweden, and Geffroyy Les ^tats Scandinaves. Among secondary an-
thorities consult the large general history by Fryxell (not translated); Carlson f
Geschichte Schwedens, vols. 5, 6, translated and continued from Geijer ; Cron-
holm, Sveriges Historie under Gustaf II. Adolphs Regering, 6 vols, (not trans-
lated); Grauert, Christina, Konigin von Schweden, und ihr Hof, 2 vols.; Arcken-
holtz, M6moires pour servir ^ I'histoire de la reine Christine, 4 vols.; Haumant^
28 Russia,
La Guerre du Nord ( 1655-60) ; Allen, Histoire de Danemark, and Spittler, Ge-
schichte der Danischen Revolution im Jahre 1660, being vol. 5 of his Sammtliche
Werke.
I^ECTURE 12.
EUROPE IN THE MIDDI.E OF THE 17TH CENTURY.
5. RUSSIA AND POI.AND.
The contrast between the Slavs of the Greek Church in Russia, and
the Slavs of the Roman Church in Poland, the former being essentially-
Asiatic, and the latter essentially European.
The backv^^ardness of Russia and its Asiatic character due to histor-
ical circumstances, but chiefly to the conquest by the Mongol hordes,
and its derivation of Christianity from Constantinople.
The epic character of the great struggle with the Mongols, and its
effect in forming the Russian people.
The reign of Ivan the Terrible (1533-84) marked the emergence of
Moscow as the centre from which the Russian Empire was to grow ; he
took the title of Tsar (1547) ; bis wars with the Tartars on the south
and east, and with the Poles and Lithuanians and Livonians on the
west and northwest ; his endeavors to reach the Baltic ; his relations
with the powers of western Europe, and especially with Elizabeth of
England ; opening up of trade between Russia and England by way of
the White Sea and Archangel ; the Muscovy Company ; invasion of
Siberia ; the government of Ivan the Terrible ; his autocracy ; his
struggles with the nobility ; his " States -General "; his personality.
Russian history in the 17th century, until the time of Peter the Great,
a commentary on the aims and ideals of Ivan the Terrible.
The reign of Feodor Ivanovitch (1584-98): institution of serfdom
(1597) and creation of the patriarchate of Moscow (1589); the reign of
Boris Godiinov (1598-1605); the first and second "false" Dimitri ;
civil war and anarchy; the " troublous times " ; the Poles at Moscow
(161 2); election of Michael Romanov as Tsar (16 13) by the States
General.
Poland.
29
The reign of Michael Romdnov (1613-45): restoration of internal
peace and tranquility; his wars with the Swedes (1613-17), and with
the Poles (1613-19, 1632-35); moral and material condition of Russia.
The reign of Alexis Romdnov (1645-76): autocracy legalized ; the
boyars ; the code of Alexis ; Nikon's reform of the Russian liturgy ;
popular risings ; Stenka Razin (1666-71); the Cossacks.
The insurrection of the inhabitants of Little Russia and the Cossacks
against Poland under Bogdan Khmelnitzski (1648); his dream of an
independent Cossack state; Cossacks declared themselves subjects of
the Tsar (1654); importance of this act; death of Khmelnitzski (1657);
war with Poland; by Truce of Androussovo (1667) Russia obtained the
left bank of the Dnieper as its frontier, with Kiev and Smolensk on the
right bank.
The condition of Poland in the 17th century: the turbulence of the
nobles; the pacta conventa; the right of confederation; the "liberum
veto " first employed by a single individual to check legislation (1652);
the work of the Jesuits; the Counter- Reformation; intensity of religious
bitterness between the Roman Catholics of Poland and the Greek
Catholics of Lithuania.
The most notable events since the Union of Lublin (1569) uniting
Poland and Lithuania; contrast between Poland and Lithuania; the
death of the last of the Jagellons, hereditary Grand Dukes of Lithuania
(1572); election to the throne of Poland thrown open; contest between
the Lithuanian party, looking to Russia, and the Polish party, looking
to Austria; the secularization of Prussia by Albert of Hohenzollern,
Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, as a fief of Poland (1525); the
suppression of the Knights of the Sword (1561), j^ielding Riga to
Sweden, Livonia to Poland, and making Kettler, the last Grand
Master, Duke of Courland, as a feudatory of Poland.
The reign of Sigismund III., Vasa (1587- 163 2): his Catholicism;
expelled from the throne of Sweden (1598); his wars with Sweden,
Russia and the Turks ; granted Ducal Prussia to the Elector of
Brandenburg as a fief (16 18); his war with Gustavus Adolphus of
Sweden (1621-29) and numerous defeats; the "Union" (1595); a third
party, the "uniates", thus added to the religious strife; the reign of
Ladislas IV. (VII.), Vasa (1632-48); Poland during the Thirty Years'
War.
30 The Turks.
The reign of Cardinal John Casimir Vasa (1648-68): his wars with
Sweden and Russia; by the Treaty of Wehlau (24 Sept., 1657) the
Elector of Brandenburg recognized as independent Duke of Prussia,
free from the suzerainty of Poland; the insurrection of Bogdan Khmel-
nitzski; the Truce of Androussovo; abdication of John Casimir (1668);
he died at Paris (1672).
In the middle of the 17th century Russia is growing politically
stronger from her concentrated autocracy and Poland politically weaker
from her anarchic constitution.
Authorities : Morfill, Story of Russia, and Story of Poland; Ramhaud, Histoire
de la Russie, translated by L. B. I^ang, 2 vols.; Karamzine, Histoire de I'empire
de Russie, translated from the Russian, 11 vols.; Merimee, Les faux Demetrius,
and Les Cosaques d' autrefois : Bogdan Chmielnicki ; Chodzko, La Pologne histo-
rique et monumentale; Salvandy, Histoire de Pologne avant et sous le Roi Jean
Sobieski, 3 vols.
LECTURE 13.
EUROPE IN THE MIDDLE OF THE 17TH CENTURY.
6. THE OTTOMAN TURKS-
The extent of Islam at the commencement of the 17th century: origin
of the Turks.
The Ottoman Turks at the height of their power in the i6th century:
Sulaiman the Magnificent (1520-66); the European possessions of the
Turks; their northern capital at Buda, in Hungary; their control of
the Levant; blow dealt to them by the loss of the passage of the
Asiatic trade through Egypt; Venice induced the Turks to oppose the
Portuguese in Asia ; their power in Northern Africa and in the Medi-
terranean; the Barbary Corsairs.
Organization of the Turkish power: the Sultan as Caliph; the Ule-
mas; the Janissaries.
Resistance of the Knights of St. John: the defense of Malta (1565).
The Turks, 31
Attitude of Europe towards the Turks: spasmodic attempts of the
Popes to stir up Christendom against them; the battle of Lepanto (7
Oct., 1571); the alliance with France; the "capitulations"; the Eng-
lish Levant Company obtained similar privileges (1580); and the Dutch
traders (161 2).
Poland and Hungary the bulwarks of Christendom against the Turks;
the Turkish suzerainty over the Danubian Provinces and Transylvania;
the religious attitude of the Turks: the Greek Church and the Turks;
their welcome of renegades.
Fortunately for Christian Europe during the critical period of the
Wars of Religion and the Thirty Years' War, the Turks remained
quiet; the Sultans degenerated in character; and between the death of
Sulaiman the Magnificent (1566) and the accession of Muhammad
Kiuprili to power (1656) their only conquests were Cyprus, taken
(1571) and Tunis retaken (1574); causes of this sudden degeneracy.
The Janissaries became Sultan-makers; they were permitted to marry
and the tax of Christian children ceased.
Internal dissensions marked the reign of Muhammad III. (1595-
1603): Ahmad I. (1603-17): by the Truce of Komorn with the Emperor
(11 Nov., 1606) the Sultan renounced his claim to tribute from the
Emperor, and his exclusive suzerainty over Transylvania ; treaties with
England and the United Provinces, and war with Persia ; the imbecil-
ity of Mustapha I. (161 7-18, 1622-23); the reign of Othman II.
(1618-22) and his murder.
Murad IV. (1623-40): his capture of Bagdad (25 Dec, 1638); his
cruelty ; execution of the Grand Mufti (1634), and of the Patriarch of
Constantinople (1636); Ibrahim I. (1640-48); recapture of Azov (1642);
attack on Candia in Crete (1645); his order to murder all Christians ;
assassinated by the Janissaries; accession of Muhammad IV. (1648);
troubles during his minority.
Appointment of Muhammad Kiuprili (b. 1585), a renegade Albanian,
to be Grand Vizier with full powers (1656): his great reforms; he
restored the force of the Ottoman Turks ; his internal policy ; the
execution of the Greek Patriarch ; his foreign policy ; his victories over
the Venetians and the Cossacks : new feudatory princes appointed in
Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia ; his death (1661).
32 The Turks.
Ahmad Kiuprili (b. 1626) appointed Grand Vizier, (1662): he ravaged
Transylvania (1661), invaded Hungary (1663) and prepared to march
on Vienna ; the Emperor Leopold resolved to resist the Turks and
called for the help of Christendom ; the Diet of the Empire agreed, and
Louis XIV. sent 6,000 Frenchmen ; Montedt^ccoli (b. 1608, d. 1680) de-
feated the Turks at the battle of Saint-Gothard (i Aug., 1664) and
saved Vienna; the Truce of Vasvar (10 Aug., 1664); Michael Apafy
recognized as Prince of Transylvania by both Emperor and Sultan, but
to pay tribute to the latter ; the seven provinces of Hungary left as
before, three to the Emperor and four to the Sultan.
The siege of Candia; aid sent to the Venetians by Louis XIV.; sur-
render of Morosini to Ahmad Kiuprili (27 Sept., 1669).
The Cossacks called in the help of the Turks against Poland
(1672); Ahmad Kiuprili took Kaminietz and conquered Podolia ; by
the Treaty of Budziak or Buczac (18 Oct., 1672) Poland ceded Podolia
and the Ukraine to the Turks and promised to pay tribute ; the treaty
disavowed by the Polish Diet (1673); John Sobieski defeated the Turks
at Choczim (10 Nov., 1673) and at Lemberg (24 Aug., 1675); by the
Treat}' of Zuravna (27 Oct., 1676) the Turks retained Kaminietz and
Podolia, but gave up the Ukraine and the tribute ; death of Ahmad
Kiuprili (30 Oct., 1676).
The greatness of the Kiuprilis : the sudden resurrection of the Otto-
man power ; its significance.
Authorities : Creasy, History of the Ottoman Turks, and Stanley Lane-Poole,
The Story of Turkey, and The Story of the Barbary Corsairs are readable books ;
Ranke, Fiirsten und Volker von Siid-Europa ; die Osmanen und die spanische
Monarchic im i6ten und lyten Jahrhundert (vols. 35, 36 of his Sammtiiche Werke)
is more scientific; modern works are mainly based on Von Hainmer, Geschichte des
Osmanischen Reichs., 4 vols., translated into French as L'Histoire de I'Bmpire Ot-
toman, 18 vols., and on Zinkeisen, Geschichte des osmanischen Reichs in Europa,
7 vols. See also Naima, Annals of the Turkish Kmpire from 1591 to 1659, trans-
lated from the Turkish by Eraser, Sir Thomas Roe, Negotiations (1621-28). Gon'
taut-Biron, Ambassade en Turquie de Jean de Gontaut-Biron (1605-10), and Xen^
opoly Histoire des Roumains de la Dacie Trajane.
Italy, 33
LECTURE 14.
EUROPE IN THE MIDDLE OF THE .17TH CENTURY.
7. ITAI^Y.
Italy at the commencement of the 17th century : the idea of Italian
unity preached by Dante and Machiavelli had been extinguished by the
vitality of local life and local rivalries ; the Italians preferred local to
national patriotism ; therefore Italy was largely ruled by foreign powers.
The three prominent factors :
i. The power of the Papacy represented more than the actual ex-
tent of its dominions,
ii. The great extent of Spanish power, comprising Sicily, Naples.
Milan, Finale, the Tuscan presidios and Sardinia ; Spain and
the Pope ruled two-thirds of Italy,
iii. The growth of Savoy.
The divisions of Italy and their relations to each other.
I. The States of the Church consisted of the Patrimony of Saint
Peter, and the surrounding districts ; of the duchy of Spoleto, including
Perugia (1520) ; of the March of Ancona (1532) ; of the Romagna C1503) ;
of Bologna (1513), and of Ferrara (1598), together with the duchies of
Benevento and Ponte-Corvo, within the borders of Naples, and the city
of Avignon and the county of the Venaissin, within the borders of
France; to these were added, during the 17th century, Urbino (1631)
and Castro (1649).
Alteration in the character of the Popes : they become more Italian
and temporal in their aspirations ; their attitude towards European af-
fairs ; their influence in Italy ; their nepotism ; their administration ;
the Roman nobility ; the beautification of Rome. Clement VIII — Al-
dobrandini — his anti-Spanish policy ; annexed Ferrara (1598) ; died
1605 ; Leo XI. — Medici — 1605 ; Paul V. — Borghese — 1605-21 : his quar-
rel with Venice; Gregory XV. — Ludovisi— 1621-23 ; Urban VIII. —
Barberini — 1623-44 : his anti-Spanish policy and friendship for Riche-
lieu ; his administration ; fortification of Rome ; annexation of Urbino
34 li^b-
(1631) ; war with Parma (1641-44) ; Innocent X. — Pamfili — 1644-55 •
destruction of Castro (1649) ; his negotiations with Mazarin ; condemna-
tion of Jansenism ; favoritism; Alexander VII. — Chigi — 1655-67: rise
in power of the " Congregations"; the plague at Rome (1656} ; his
quarrel with Louis XIV.; Avignon occupied by the French (1663-65);
Si^^omission of the Pope.
II. The Spanish dominions :
i. Sicily: its feudal nobility ; the rising against^pain (1647) and
its suppression. ^
ii. Naples : the government of the Spaniards ; Ossuna's attempt
at revolt (1620) ; the tax on fruit imposed by Arcos ; the ris-
ing of Masaniello (1647) 5 action of the Due de Guise ; sup-
pression of the insurrection (April, 1648).
iii. The following ports and cities in Tuscany, known as the
''presidios", occupied by Spain since 1555: Argentaro,
Porto Ercole, Santo Stefano, Talamone, Orbitello, Piombino
and Porto Longone.
iv. Duchy of Milan : exactions of the Spanish government.
V. Marquisate of Finale.
vi. Sardinia.
III. Grand Duchy of Tuscany : the later Medici ; the tranquil reign
of Ferdinand II. (1620-70) ; his encouragement of science and art.
IV. Duchy of Parma and Piacenza : government of the Farnesi ; the
war with the Pope (1641-44, 46-49) about the Duchy of Castro.
V. Duchy of Modena and Reggio : government of the Estensi ; their
friendship for France ; their desire to recover Ferrara.
VI. Duchy of Mantua and Montferrat : the war for the Mantuan
Succession (1627) on the death of Vincent Gonzaga II.; the Em-
peror and Spain supported the Duke of Guastalla ; Richelieu sup-
ported Charles Gonzaga, Due de Nevers ; the city of Mantua sacked by
the Imperialists (18 July, 1630) ; by the Treaty of Cherasco (1631)
Charles was acknowledged as Duke, but Savoy obtained part of Mont-
ferrat ; in return for its assistance, France was allowed to garrison
Casale.
VII. Duchy of Guastalla : Duke Ferdinand Gonzaga I. claimed Man-
tua (1627) ; influence of Spain and the Emperor.
Italy. 35
VIII. Republic of Venice : the decline of its commerce ; its political
importance in the I^evant and in Italy ; the government of the Republic
its internal policy ; its foreign policy ; the quarrel with Pope Paul V.
Venice under an interdict (1606-07); Fra Paolo Sarpi (b. 1552, d. 1623)
the conspiracy of Bedmar (161 8) ; struggle with the Turks ; the war in
Crete (1645-69).
IX. Republic of Genoa : its weakness ; its troubles with Corsica ;
wealth of its bankers ; its fidelity to Spain the cause of attacks and
menaces by France and Savoy.
X. Republic of Lucca : its commercial prosperity.
XI. Duchy of Savoy : the importance of its position holding the
passes of the Alps between France and Italy ; possession of Piedmont
makes the dukes more Italian than French.
Charles Emmanuel I. (i 580-1630) ; at first a faithful ally of Philip II.,
whose daughter he had married ; ceded Bresse, Bugey and Gex to
Henry IV. (1601) in exchange for Saluzzo ; Henry IV. 's dream of a
kingdom of the Alps ; Charles Emmanuel declared for national inde-
pendence of Italy against Spain; the Mantuan Succession (1627);
Savoy obtained part of Montferrat (1631).
Victor A^^^:eki\. (1630-37) : his alliance with France ; married to a
daughter of Henry IV. ; by the treaty of Rivoli (1635) formed a league
against Spain with Mantua and Parma ; cession of Pignerol to France.
Charles Emmanuel II. (1638-75) ; regency of Maria Christina of
France (1637-48) ; civil war (1639-42), the Regent being aided by
France and the late king's brothers by Spain ; his policy ; persecution
of the Vaudois ; schemes on Genoa ; the House of Savoy regarded Italy
" as an artichoke to be eaten up leaf by leaf. ' '
Authorities: Among small books in Mnglisb, or translated into English,
may be noted Trollope, Paul the Pope and Paul the Friar; H. F. Brown, Venice ;
Malleson, Studies from Genoese History ; and for Masaniello and Naples during
this period, Von Reurnont, The Carafas of Maddaloni ; Naples under Spanish Do-
minion. Among secondary histories consult Botta, Storia delP Italia, vols.
5-8 ; Cantti, Storia degli Italiani ; Ranke, Die romischen Papste im i6ten und lyten
Jahrhundert, 3 vols., translated by Austin, vol. 3 ; Brosch, Geschichte des Kirchen-
staates, 2 vols. ; De Mouy, L'Ambassade du Due de Cr^qui (1662-65), 2 vols. ;
Giannone, Istoria civile del Regno di Napoli ; Hervey de Saint- Denis, Insurrection
de Naples en 1647, translated from Rivas, 2 vols. ; Loiseleur, Mazarin et le Due de
36 Spain.
Guise in his Questions historiques du XVIP siecle ; Von Reumont, Geschichte Tos-
canas unter die Medici, 2 vols. ; Cantii, Ragionamenti suUa Storia Lombarda del
secolo XVII. ; Bianchi-Giovini, Biografia da Fra Paolo; Cornet, Paolo V e la republica
Veneta (1605-7) I -Daru, Histoiie de Venise, vols, x-xiv ; Garzoni, Istoria della re-
publica di Venezia ; Ricotti, Storia della monarchia piemontese ; Costa- Beauregard y
Memoires historiques sur la Maison royale de Savoie, 4 vols. ; Belgiojoso, Histoire de
la Maison de Savoie ; Baux, Histoire de la reunion a la France des provinces de
Bresse, Bugey, Gex; Carutti, Storia della diplomazia della corte di Savoia, 4 vols., and
Claretta, Storia del regno di Carlo Emanuele II., 2 vols. ^hQ primary authori-
ties are to be found in Muratori, Botero, the collections of official documents,
and the Archivio Storico Italiano, while for the attempt of Guise on Naples may be
noted Modene, Histoire des revolutions de la ville et du royaume de Naples, and
Loiseleur and Baguenault de Puchesse, ly'expddition du Due de Guise a Naples, and
for the quarrel between the Pope and Venice, Sarpi, Opere.
LECTURE 15.
EUROPE) IN THE MIDDLE OF THE 17TH CENTURY.
8. SPAIN AND PORTUGAI,.
The extent of the dominions of the Spanish Hapsburgs at the com-
mencement of the 17th century : vSpain, Portugal, Sardinia, Naples,
Sicily, the Milanese, Roussillon, Franche-Comte, the Catholic Nether-
lands, Central and South America, the West Indies, the Philippine Is-
lands and the various settlements of the Portuguese in Africa and Asia.
The policy of Philip II. and its effect on the strength of Spain at
home and abroad : Spain and the Catholic Church.
The weakness of Spain at home : bad internal administration ; steril-
izing effect of the wealth drawn from the colonies ; colonial adminis-
stration.
The weakness of Spain abroad : the war with England and the
Protestant Netherlands ; the attitude of France and of the Empire.
Yet the seeming power of Spain overshadowed Protestant Christen-
dom : policy of Henry IV. of France, James I. and Charles I. of
England, Richelieu, Mazarin and Cromwell toward Spain.
Spain and Portugal, 37
Reign of Philip III. (i 598-1 621): the administration of the Duke of
Lerma ( 1598-1618); his internal policy ; the expulsion of the Moriscoes
(1609); his foreign policy ; peace with England (1604); truce with the
Protestant Netherlands (1609) ; the French alliance and marriages
(1612) ; Lerma made a cardinal and dismissed (1618); succeeded by
his son, the Duke of Ucedo.
Reign of Philip IV. (1621-65): administration of the Count-Duke
Olivares (1621-43);. Spain in the Thirty Years' War ; Spinola occupied
the Palatinate (1621); renewal of war with the Dutch (1621); Spain
struggled with France for supremacy in Northern Italy and was three
times worsted, (i) in the affair of the Valtelline (1625), (2) in the Man-
tuan Succession (1627-30), (3) in the Valtelline (1635); Richelieu's
efforts to overthrow the power of Spain ; the revolt of Catalonia and of
Portugal (1640) ; dismissal of Olivares (1643^
Administration of Don Luis de Haro (1643-65): defeat of the Span-
iards at Rocroi (1643) ; and again at Lens (1648) ; Spain recognized
the independence of the Protestant Netherlands at Miinster (1648);
Spain's attempts to take advantage of the Fronde in France ; Cromwell
and Mazarin ; defeat of Spain ; conclusion of the Treaty of the Pyre-
nees (7 Nov., 1659), by which Spain lost Roussillon and Artois ; mar-
riage of Louis XIV. to Maria Theresa of Spain ; the question of the
Spanish Succession ; death of Philip IV. (17 Sept., 1665).
Condition of Portugal during the " Sixty Years' Captivity " to Spain
(1580-1640^; ruin of her commerce; loss of her monopoly of the
Asiatic trade ; the Dutch seized the Spice Islands and established
themselves in Brazil ; discontent felt in Portugal ; preparations for
revolt ; negotiations with Richelieu.
The Revolution of 1640 : the Duke of Braganza hailed as John IV.;
independence of Portugal recognized by France and the Dutch ; help
sent ; revolt of the Asiatic and African possessions and Brazil against
Spain ; commencement of the War of Independence; difficulties of John
IV.; his death (1656).
Reign of Affonso VI. (1656-67): government of the queen-mother
(1656-62); Schomberg (b. 161 8, d. 1690) organized the Portuguese
army ; by the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659), Mazarin promised Spain
to abandon his support of Portugal ; but he brought about the marriage
38 France Voider Louis XIV. and Colbtn,
of Charles II. of England with Catherine of Braganza (1662;; impor-
tance of the English alliance; administration of Castel Melhor (1662-
67); continuation of the War of Independence; victories of Schomberg;
court revolution (1667); Dom Pedro declared Regent and AfFonso VI.
sent to the Azores; treaty of peace with Spain signed at Lisbon (13 Feb.,
1668) and the independence of Portugal recognized.
Significance of the Revolution of 1640 : condition of Portugal and its
importance as an ally of England. ^
Authorities : As small books may be noted Dunham, History of Spain and
Portugal, vols. 3, 4, which is old-fashioned but fairly correct for Spain, and Morse
Stephens^ Story of Portugal. As secondary authorities consult, for Spain, the
volumes on this period in Lafuente, and other consecutive histories of Spain ;
WeisSy I/'Bspagne depuis le regne de Philippe II. jusqu'a I'av^nement des Bour-
bons, 2 vols.; Philippson, Heinrich IV. und Philipp III.; Melo, Guerra de la Cata-
luiia, translated by L,eonce de Lavergne ; Watson, History of the Reign of Philip
III., and Dunlop, Memoirs of Spain during the reigns of Philip IV. and Charles
II., 2 vols., both old-fashioned but containing much that is valuable; for Portu-
gal, Oliveira Martins, Historia de Portugal ; Rebello da Silva, Historia de Portu-
gal durante os seculos XVI. et XVII., 5 vols. (1557-1656); Vertot, Revolutions de
Portugal, and Tessier, Le Chevalier de Jant : relations de la France avec le Portu-
gal au temps de Mazarin. Among primary authorities for Spanish history
during the century may be noted, in addition to the Coleccion de documentos in-
editos, Morel- Fatio, L'Espagne au XVI^ et XVIP. siecle : documents historiques
et litteraires, Denans de Courchetet, Histoire des n^gociations et du traits de paix
de Pyrenees, and Mignet, Negociations relatives a la succession d'Espagne sous
Louis XIV., vol. i.; for Portugal, Borges de Castro and Judice Biker, Colleccao
dos actos publicos celebrados entre a Coroa de Portugal e as mais potencias desde
1640 ; Carte, History of the Revolutions of Portugal with the Letters of Sir R.
Southwell to the Duke of Ormond ; and Sir Richard Fanshaw, Original Letters
during his Embassies in Spain and Portugal.
V LECTURE 16. •'-w^
FRANCE UNDER LOUIS ^IV. AND CQLBERT : TO THE REVOCATION
OFTHE^EDICT OF NANTES, 1685.
Louis XIV. assumed the actual government of France on the death
of Mazarin (1661): his personality ; his political aims ; how far he con-
France Under Louis XIV. and Colbert. 39
tinned the work of Richelieu and Mazarin ; how far he was an orig-
inator.
His first ministers : the chancellors Seguier (1656-72), d'Aligre
(1672-77) and I^eTellier (1677-85); Hugues de L,ionne (1663-71), Pom-
ponne (1671-79) and Colbert- Croissy (1679-96), foreign affairs ; Le Tel-
lier (1643-66) and Louvois (1666-91), war ; Fouquet (1653-61) and Col-
bert (1661-83), finances ; Colbert (1668-76) and Colbert-Seignelay
(1676-90), marine.
The overthrow of Fouquet (1661).
The work of Colbert (b. 16 19, d. 1683): he arranged the finances of
France ; he built up manufactures by a protective policy ; he encour-
aged commerce and occupied San Domingo ; he created the French
navy ; his personal probity ; his hatred of war ; his love of public
works ; the great canal of Languedoc made by Riquet.
Louvois (b. 1641, d. 1691) and his work : he organized the army ; his
military reforms ; formation of uniformed regiments, etc ; the great
French generals, Turenne and Conde, Luxembourg and Vauban.
The internal policy of Louis XIV.: he attracted the nobility to Court
and kept them out of politics ; he built up the administrative sj^stem ;
the intendants of the provinces ; the new official nobility ; the police
system ; the suppression of local liberties and municipal government ;
the "King and his ministers the pivot of the highly centralized govern-
ment.
The position of the Parlements : especially the Parlement of Paris ;
growing importance of the noblesse de la robe.
The splendor of Louis XIV.: he established himself at Versailles
and made it the seat of government (1682); importance giv^en by him
to the Court ; influence of society and social observances ; etiquette ;
effect of the removal from Paris ; his absolutism in society as well as in
politics.
Immorality of Parisian society : the case of'jMadame de Brinvilliers
(1676); the " poisoning affairs " (1680).
Louis XIV. and the Catholic Church : his quarrel with Pope Alex-
ander VII. (1662-64) ; his quarrel with Pope Innocent XI. (1687-89) ;
the claims of the Gallican Church ; the Assembly of 16S2 ; the attitude
of Louis XIV. to the Papacy ; the Jansenists and their doctrines ; the
40 France Under Louis XIV. and Colbert.
position of the Huguenots ; the new policy adopted by the King ; the
dragonnades ; Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (22 Oct., 1685).
Condition of the French provinces under Louis XIV. : suppression
of brigandage and crime ; the " Grands Jours d' Auvergne " (1665-66);
hard lot of the peasants ; provincial life among the petite noblesse and
the bourgeois ; prosperity of the cities, and, under Colbert, of industry
and commerce.
Louis XIV. and literature : the classic age ; French tragedy and
comedy created by Corneille, Racine and Moliere ; the great French
preachers, Bossuet, Mascaron, Flechier and Bourdaloue; the prose
writers, Pascal and La Bruyere ; Boileau and the canons of poetry ;
history and Mezeray ; the work and position of the Academic Frangaise.
Louis XIV. and art : the painters, Poussin, Le Sueur and Le Brun ;
the architects, Mansart and Perrault ; the gardener, Le Notre ; founda-
tion of the Academies of Sciences and of Inscriptions and of the School
of Rome.
Private life of Louis XIV.: his principal mistresses, Mdlle. de La
Valliere, Madame de Montespan and Mdlle. de Fontanges ; death of the
Queen (1683) ; his private marriage to Madame de Maintenon (1684).
The year of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) marked
a change in the character and policy of Louis XIV : he is henceforth in-
fluenced by Madame de Maintenon and his confessors Pere La Chaise,
and Pere Letellier ; after the death of Colbert the Spanish Succession
became his one aim.
Impression which the days of the glory of Louis XIV. made on
Europe : the imitators of his ideas and of his splendor.
Authorities : Hassall, Louis XIV. and the Zenith of the French Monarchy is the
best little book in English on the period ; but Voltaire, Siecle de Louis XIV., is
not likely to be superseded. Among secondary authorities may be noted Gail-
lardin, Histoire du regne de Louis XIV., vols. 3. 4 ; Lair, Louise de Valliere et la
jeunesse de Louis XIV., and Nicolas Fouquet, 2 vols. ; Cheruel, De I'administra-
tion de Louis XIV. ( 1661-72), and Memoires sur la vie publique et privee de Fou-
quet, 2 vols.; Clement, Hi-^toire de Colbert et de son administration, 2 vols; Le Gouv-
ernement de Louis XIV., ou la cour I'administration, les finances et le commerce
de 1683-89 ; La Police sous Louis XIV., and Madame de Montespan et Louis XIV.;
Neymarck, Colbert et son temps, 2 vols.; Rousset, Histoire de Louvois, 4 vols.;
Kerviler, Le chancelier Pierre Seguier ; Chantelauze, Le Cardinal de Retz et ses
Foreig7i Policy of Louis XIV, 41
missions diplomatiques d Rome; Gazicr, Les dernieres anndes du Cardinal de Retz;
Loyson, L'Asseuiblec du clcrg6 de France de 1682; Michaud, Louis XIV. et Inno-
cent XI., 4 vols.; Baiisset, Histoire dc Bossuet, 4 vols., and Histoirc de F^nelon, 4
vols.; Benoit, Histoire de 1' ^dit de Nantes; Douen, La Revocation de 1' Edit de
Nantes a, Paris ; Bianquis^ La Revocation dc 1' Edit de Nantes d Rouen; Soulice^
L'intendant Foucault et la Revocation en B^arn; Puaux and Sabniier, Etudes sur la
Revocation de I'l^dit de Nantes, and Lemontey^ Essai sur retablissement monarcb-
ique de Louis XIV ; Martin^ La Monarchie au XVIIi^me si^cle ; essai sur le sys-
timc et I'influence personelle de Louis XIV. The primary authorities for the
administration of Louis XIV. are Louis XIV., Oeuvres, ed. Grouvelle^ 6 vols. ; M^m-
oire de Louis XIV. pour I'instruction du Dauphin, ed. Dreyss ; Clement, Lettres,
instructions et m^moires de Colbert, 7 vols.; Boislisle, Correspon dance des control-
eursg^n^raux des finances avec les intendants des provinces, 2 vols., and M^m-
oires des intendants sur I'^tat des g^n^ralit^s, and Depping, Correspondance admin-
istrative sous leregne de Louis XIV., 4 vols., in the Documents inddits ; for the ad-
ministration in the provinces see also the works cited under Lecture 29. Among the
vast number of memoirs, etc., maybe noted the Journal of Lefivre d' Onnesson;
the Me moires of Madame de Motteville, Mademoiselle de Montpensier, La Fare^
Gomuille and Foucault; Cosnac, Souvenirs du r^gne de Louis XIV., 8 vols. ; Flech'
ier, Memoires sur les Grands Jours tenus a Clermont en 1665-66, ed. Gonod ; and
Bussv-Rabutin, Correspondance ( 1663-93), ed. Lalanne; with,above all,the Letters
of Madame de ^vign^f with Combes^ Madame de Sevign^ historien.
LECTURE 17.
THE FOREIGN POLICY OF LOUIS XIV. : TO THE TREATIES OF
NIMEGITEN, 1678.
Position of the powers of Europe toward each other when Louis
XIV. assumed the government of France (166 1).
The 17th century theory of the State : the idea of religious unity
was giving way to the conception of national unity concentrated in
the person of the Monarch ; exceptions, the Protestant Netherlands
and England.
The Restoration in England (1660): extinction of feudal relics ; the
power of Parliament and development of commercialism ; the contest
for the commerce of the world between England and the Dutch.
42 Foreigfi Policy of Louis XIV, , 1661-68.
Advantages possessed by France in the new era of diplomatists and
standing armies : lyouis XIV. understood and dominated the new era ;
his foreign office and diplomatists ; his army, its organization and its
generals ; his navy.
I,ouis XIV. resolved to use these advantages to enlarge the borders
of France, and, for internal and external reasons, decided on a war
policy.
Louis XIV. and diplomatic privileges : the case of D'Estrades at
London (1661), and of Crequi at Rome (1662).
Louis XIV. and England : marriage of Henrietta of England, sister
of Charles II., to the Duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XIV. (1661) ;
purchase of Dunkirk (17 Oct., 1662).
Louis XIV. and Spain : his hopes of the succession ; his claims for
diplomatic precedence granted.
Louis XIV. and Germany : help sent to the Emperor against the
Turks (1664) ; Ms influence with the League of the Rhine and the west
German princes.
Louis XIV. and the Turks : Beaufort defeated the Barbary Corsairs
(1663-65) ; help sent to the Venetians in Candia.
Louis XIV. and the Dutch : his relations with John de Witt ; efiect
of Colbert's protective policy on the Dutch.
The naval war between England and the Dutch (1664-67) : causes of
the war in commercial rivalry ; the republican party and the House of
Orange ; capture of New Amsterdam ; battle of Lowestoft (3 June,
1665) ; the attack of Galen, Bishop of Miinster, on the Dutch ; Louis
XIV. declared war against England (26 Jan., 1666); battle of the
Downs (1-4 June, 1666); Louis XIV. made an agreement with Charles
II. (March, 1667) ; the Dutch in the Medway ; Treaty of Breda (31
July, 1667) ; England abandoned the trade of the Spice Islands, but
kept the New Netherlands.
The War of Devolution (1667-68) : pretext for the war ; isolation of
Spain ; Louis XIV. took the border fortresses of the Catholic Nether-
lands and occupied Franche-Comte ; the Triple Alliance ; by the Treaty
of Aix-la-Chapelle (2 May, 1668) France kept French Flanders, but re-
stored Franche-Comte to Spain.
The Triple Alliance between England, Sweden, and the Dutch (23
Tlic Dutcli IVar, 16'/ 2-^8. 43
Jan., 1668) : its importance; the principle of the Balance of Power,
one of the keynotes of European policy for more than a century, devised
by Sir William Temple, to check the ambition of Louis XIV.
The position in the Protestant Netherlands : the policy of John de
Witt ; his opposition to the House of Orange ; character of William
III.
Louis XIV. broke up the Triple Alliance by the Treaty of Dover
with England (i June, 1670), and by detaching Sweden (14 April, 1672);
secret treaty with the Emperor for dividing the Spanish Succession (19
Jan., 1668), followed by a treaty of neutrality (i Nov., 167 1) ; treaty
with the Elector of Bavaria (17 Feb., 1670).
Louis XIV. attacked the Dutch (1672) : their sole ally the Great
Elector, Frederick William of Brandenburg ; William III. appointed
Captain- General by the States- General of the United Provinces (4 Feb.,
1672) ; passage of the Rhine by the French army (12 June) ; the Dutch
cut their dykes (18 June); William III. proclaimed Stadtholder of
Holland and Zealand (4 July) ; murder of John d^ Witt (20 Aug.) ;
treaty with the Emperor (27 Oct.) ; the Great Elector forced to make
peace with France at Vossen (10 Apr., 1673).
The naval war : England joined France; the battle of Solebay (7
June, 1672); the Dutch successful under Cornelius Tromp (b. 1629, d.
1691), and Ruyter (b. 1607, d. 1676), in 1673 (7 June, 14 June, 21
August); peace between England and the Dutch (19 Feb., 1674).
The continental war : coalition formed against Louis XIV. by the Em-
peror and the Great Elector (23 June, 1672); conference at Cologne
(June, 1673) ; the Emperor formed a second coalition with the Dutch,
joined in succession by Spain and the Duke of Lorraine (30 Aug., 1673),
Denmark and the Elector- Palatine (Jan. and March, 1674), the Empire
(28 May, 1674), and the Great Elector (i July, 1674); the Electors of
Treves and Cologne forced to abandon France (1673); Sweden re-
mained her only ally.
Campaign of 1673 : capture of Maestricht (29 June, 1673) ; Turenne's
strategy ; campaign of 1674 ; Louis XIV. occupied Franche-Comtd ;
William III. defeated by Conde at Senef (11 Aug., 1674) ; Turenne
crossed the R^iine and ravaged the Palatinate ; campaign of 1675 ; Tu-
renne and Mootecuecoli in Alsace ; Turenne killed (27 July) ; naval
44 T^i^ Treaties of Ni7iieg7ie7i, i6y8,
victories of Du Quesne (b. 1610, d. 1688) in the Mediterranean; death
of Ruyter (Apr., 1676); subsequent campaigns; capture of the border
fortresses by the French.
Treaties of Peace signed at Nimeguen ;
i. Between France and the Dutch (10 Aug., 1678) by which
France restored Maestricht and the Dutch ceded nothing.
ii. Between France and Spain (17 Sept., 1678) by which Spain
ceded Franche-Comte, and Valenciennes, Cambrai and other
towns in French Flanders, to France,
iii. Between France and the Emperor (5 Feb., 1679) by which
France restored Philipsburg, but retained Breisach and Frei-
burg.
These treaties supplemented by (i.) that of Saint- Germain-en-Laye
(29 June, 1679) between Brandenburg and Sweden ; (ii.) that of
Fontainebleau (26Sept , 1679) between Denmark and Sweden; by which
Brandenburg and Denmark restored their conquests to Sweden.
Authorities: Among secondary works dealing with the diplomatic and
military history of the period, founded on documents, may be noted, Philippso7i,
Das zeitalter lyudwigs des Vierzehnten ; Filon, La France et I'Autriche au XVII*
Siecle : Lonchay, La rivalite de la France et de I'Espagne aux Pays-Bas (1635-
1700) ; Lef^vre-Pontalis, Jean de Witt ; Groen van Prinsterer and Combes, cited
under Lecture 10 ; Baillon, Henriette Anne d'Angleterre, duchesse d'Orleans ;
Forneron, Louise de Keroualle, duchesse de Portsmouth; Segur-Dupeyron, Histoire
des n^gociations Commercial es et maritimes de la France au XVII ieme et XVIII
ieme Siecle, vol. i ; Jusserand, A French Ambassador at the Court of Charles II. ;
le comtede Cominges ; Moiiy, Louis XIV. et le Saint-Siege : I'ambassade du due de
Crequi (1662-1665) ; Rousset, Histoire de Louvois, .4 vols.; Peter, DerKrieg des
Grossen Kurfiirsten gegen Frankreich (1672-1675) ; Depping, Geschichte des
Krieges der Miinsterer und Coiner im Bundnisse mit Frankreich gegen Holland ;
Ennen, Frankreich und der Niederrhein, 2 vols. ; Guhrcrtter, Kur-Mainz in der
Epoche von 1672 ; Piepape, Histoire de la reunion de la Franche-Comt^ a la France,
2 vols. ; Roy, Turenne, sa vie et les institutions militaires de son temps ; Ramsay,
Histoire du Vicomte de Turenne, 4 vols ; Choppin, Campagne de Turenne en
Alsace ( 1674-75 ) ; Campori, Raimondo Montecuccoli,la sua famiglia e i suoi tempi ;
Michel, Histoire de Vauban ; Mellion, Vauban ; Ambert, Le Marechal de Vauban ;
Jal, Abraham Du Quesne et la marine de son temps, 2 vols., and Paulliat, Louis
XIV. et la compagnie des Indes. The chief primary authorities are the text of
the treaties in Fast, Les grandes traites du regne de Louis XIV. ; Mignet, N^gocia-
tions relatives d, la succession d'Espagne, 4 vols. ; Griffet, Recueil de Lettres pour
Willii
Frederick lv(illia7n, the Great Elector. 45
servir k I'histoire militaire de Louis XIV., 8 vols.; Turenne, Correspondance
in^dite avec Le Tellier et Louvois ( 1652-72), ed. Barthelemy, and the M^moiresof
Turenne, Montccuccoli and the Marcchal Gramont.
LECTURE 18.
FREDERICK WILLIAM, THE GREAT ELECTOR.
The scattered nature and diverse character of the dominions r-uled by
Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia,
known as the Great Elector (b. 1620, succeeded 1640).
In 1648 Brandenburg, the nucleus, was not yet entirely evacuated by
the Swedish troops ; Eastern Pomerania still full of Swedes ; Prussia
only held in feudal subjection to Poland ; and Cleves garrisoned by the
Dutch ; the additional territory given to him by the Treaties of West-
phalia— Magdeburg, Halberstadt, Cammin and Minden.
Contrast between the policy pursued in Brandenburg and in the rest
of Germany during the latter half of the 17th century: the importance
of the reign of the Great Elector ; he prepared the way for the future
greatness of the House of HohenzoUern.
The Great Elector's national policy : his desire to hold Prussia free
from Polish suzerainty the motive for his actions in the Northern War of
1656-60 ; that relief, granted by the Treaty of Wehlau (1657), confirmed
by the Treaty of Oliva (1660); his desire to get the Dutch garrison out
of Cleves the motive for aiding the Dutch in 1672 ; his desire to con-
quer Western Pomerania the motive for joining the coalition against
Louis XIV.
To carry out his schemes the Great Elector, like Louis XIV., created
and organized a standing army and looked solely to national interests.
In 1666 he finallj^ divided the Juliers- Cleves dominions, and took
Cleves, Ravensberg and Mark ; in the same year he occupied Magde-
burg, which afterwards legally devolved on him according to the
Treaties of Westphalia, on the death of Augustus of Saxony in 1680.
Part taken by the Great Elector in the wars against Louis XIV : in
1672 he aided the Hwtrh., but made peace in 1673 ; in 1674 he joined the
46 Frederick William, the Great Elector,
coalition against France, and was attacked by Sweden ; he defeated
the Swedes at FehrbelUn (28 June, 1675), took Stettin (1677), and
Stralsund (1678) ; but by the Treaty of Saint- Germain-en-L,aye (29
June, 1679), he had to restore all Western Pomerania except a small
district.
The Great Elector and the Emperor : his German policy ; a member
of the lycague of the Rhine ; strife for the leadership of the Protestant
princes with Saxony ; his friendship with Denmark ; his attitude to-
wards Poland ; his claims to Jagernsdorf in Silesia, confiscated by Fer-
dinand II. in 1623, and to I^iegnitz on death of the last duke (1675),
compromised in 1686 by the Emperor Leopold's ceding to him Schwebus
in Silesia.
The internal policy of the Great Elector : his struggle for absolutism
and centralized administration with the nobility, united in their pro-
vincial Estates, and with the municipal rights of the cities ; local jeal-
ousy of the different provinces.
i. In Brandenburg : the Estates were enfeebled and could not
meet without being convoked ; no Estates of the province,
only provincial Estates in the Old, and New, Mark,
ii. In Cleves : the nobility I^utheran and opposed to the Cal-
vinist Elector ; their alliance with the Dutch ; the adminis-
tration in the hands of the Estates ; the resistance of the
nobility overthrown by the use of troops in 1651 and 1654 ;
the administration taken into the hands of the Elector,
iii. In Prussia : the nobility with full feudal power taxing
and ruling their dominions ; their friendship with and imi-
tation of the Polish nobility ; independent attitude of the
Estates, supported by the city of Konigsberg ; the Great
Elector's struggle for the recognition of his sovereignty
(1660-63); the execution of Kalkstein (1670).
The keynote of the struggle the definition of the position of the
Elector and the Estates : the main battle over taxation ; in Branden-
tmJ^ (1653), in Cleves (1661), in Prussia (1663) the right of self-taxa-
tion by the Estates was acknowledged ; but in Cleves from 1670, in
Brandenburg from 1678, in Prussia and in Magdeburg from 1682 the
direct taxes were recognized as permanent, and future taxes imposed
without asking the Estates ; excise introduced (1677).
Louis XIV. and William III. i^i
In return for the subordination of the nobles, the Great Elector rec-
ognized serfdom on their properties and re-established it in Prussia.
To carry out his ambitious hopes for his House, the Great Elector
saw that Brandenburg must be a military power : his efforts to create a
standing army ; at his accession it consisted of 1,200 men, at his death
of 30,000.
Material progress encouraged by the Great Elector : agriculture im-
proved ; marshes drained ; canal made from the Elbe to the Oder ;
growth of Berlin ; welcome of more than 20,000 Huguenots after the
Revocation of the Edict of Nantes.
Death of the Great Elector (28 April, 1688): comparison between his
aims and methods and those of Louis XIV.
Authorities : In English see Carlyle, History of Frederick the Great, vols, i,
2, and TuUle, History of Prussia, vol. i. Among secondary histories consult
Berner, Geschichte des preussischen Staats ; Stenzel^ Geschichte des preussischen
Staats, vols, i, 2; Droysen, Geschichte der preussischen Politik, vol. 3; Ratike, Zwolf
Biicher preussischer Geschichte ; Treitschke^ Deutsche Geschichte, vol. i ; Philipp-
son, Geschichte des preussischer Staatswesens, vol. i ; Bornhak, Geschichte des
preussischen Verwaltungsrechts. vol. r ; Isaacsohn, Geschichte des preussischen
Beamtenthums, vol. 2 ; Cavaignac, La Formation de la Prusse contemporaine, vol. i;
Hedestrom, Die Beziehungen zwischen Russland und Brandenburg wahrend des ersten
nordischen Krieges (1655-60) ; Musedeck, Die Feldziige desGrossen Kurfursten in
Pommern (1675-77) I and Peter, cited under Lecture 17. The best biography is
Erdmannsdorffer, Der Grosse Kurfiirst. The primary authority is the collec-
tion, edited by Erdmannsdorffer and others, of the Urkunden und Actenstiicke zur
Geschichte des Kurfiirsten Friedrich Wilhelm von Brandenburg.
LECTURE 19.
THE FOREIGN POLICY OF LOUIS XIV : TO THE TREATIES OF RYS-
WICK, 1697.
The rivalry between William III., Prince of Orange, and Louis XIV. :
the character of William III.; his adherence to the doctrine of the Bal-
ance of Power ; the question of the Spanish Succession.
The position of William III. in the United Provinces : he was pro-
48 Foreign Policy of Louis XIV., i6y8-88.
claimed hereditary Captain- and Admiral-General (1674), and hereditary
Stadtholder of Holland, Zealand and Utrecht (1674), and of Gelderland
and Overyssel (1675) ; his chief agent, Fagel, Pensionary of Holland
(1672-88) ; after the Treaties of Nimeguen the republican party raised
opposition to him; Heinsius (b. 1641, d. 1720J elected Pensionary of Hol-
land (March, 1689).
The position of L^ouis XIV. after the Treaties of Nimeguen ; his re-
lations with Charles II. and James II. of England ; the *' chambers of
reunion ' ' declared certain towns and districts belonging to the Elector-
Palatine, the Elector of Treves, the Bishop of Spires and the Duke of
Wiirtemberg, with the duchy of Deux-Ponts (Zw^eibriicken), a posses-
sion of the King of Sweden, to be fiefs of the Three Bishoprics, Alsace
or Franche Comte ; seizure of Strasburg and purchase of Casale (30
Sept., 1681) ; secret alliance between the Ernperor, William III., Spain
and Sweden (i 681) negotiated b}^ Ernest, Duke of Hanover, to preserve
the arrangements made at Nimeguen in 1678 ; prevented from acting
by the invasion of the Turks and the siege of Vienna (1683) 5 capture of
Luxemburg (1684) ; the Imperial Diet made a truce of twenty years
with Louis XIV., and consented to the reunions (15 Aug., 1684).
Formation of the League of Augsburg (17 July, 1686) between the
allies of 168 1. joined by Victor Amadeus II., Duke of Savoy, the Elec-
tor of Bavaria and others.
Louis XIV. and the Mediterranean : Du Quesne bombarded Tripoli
(1681) and Algiers (1682-83) and Genoa (1684) ; Seignelay's work in
improving the French navy.
Louis XIV. and Pope Innocent XI.: the ambassador's right of asy-
lum ; occupation of Avignon (1688).
Louis XIV. and the administration : Colbert succeeded by Le Pele-
tier (1683-89), and Pontchartrain (1689-99) ; Louvois by Barbezieux
(1691-1701) ; Colbert- Croissy assisted by Colbert-Torcy (1689) ^^^ suc-
ceeded by him (1696).
Effect of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) on Europe,
especially on England and Germany.
Outbreak of war (1688) : its immediate causes ; (i) the Palatine Suc-
cession (1685) ; pretensions of Louis XIV. on behalf of the Duchess
of Orleans ; (2) the electorate of Cologne, France supporting Cardinal
War of the League of Augsburg ^ 1688-97, 49
von Fiirstenberg and the Emperor, Joseph Clement of Bavaria ; devas-
tation of the Palatinate, occupation of Bonn, Cologne, Mayence and
Treves and capture of Philipsburg (1689).
The situation changed by the Revolution of 1688 in England, by
which William III. became ruler of England ; effect on the position of
Louis XIV.; despatch of an army and a fleet to support James II. in
Ireland.
Campaign of 1690 : De Tourville defeated the English and the Dutch
off Beachy Head (10 July), but James II. was defeated in the battle of
the Boyne (11 July), and left Ireland ; Luxembourg (b. 1628, d. 1695)
defeated the Prince of Waldeck at Fleurus (i July, 1690), and Catinat
(b. 1637, d. 1712), the Duke of Savoy at Staffarda (17 Aug., 1690).
The campaign of 1691 : preparations of Louis XIV. for the invasion
of England ; capture of Mons (9 April) by the king ; of Nice (2 April)
by Catinat ; of Urgel by Nop.illes ; death of Louvois.
The campaign of 1692 : Russell defeated De Tourville in the battle
of La Hogue (29 May) ; end of the French supremacy in the Channel :
regular naval war abandoned for frigate fighting and privateering ;
Duguay-Trouin and Jean Bart ; the invasion of England abandoned ;
capture of Namur by the king (5 June) ; Luxembourg defeated William
III. at Steenkirk (3 August) ; the Duke of Savoy and Prince Eugene
invaded Dauphin^.
The campaign of 1693 • Luxembourg defeated William III. at Lan-
den or Neerwinden (29 July) and took Charleroi (11 Oct.); Catinat de-
feated the Duke of Savoy and Prince Eugene at the Marsaglia (4 Oct.);
Rosas captured by Noailles (9 June) ; Pondicherry , the chief French set-
tlement in India, taken by the Dutch.
Exhaustion of France : feebleness of the ministers ; depreciation of
the currency.
Defensive campaign of 1694 • death of Luxembourg (4 Jan., 1695) ;
William III. recaptured Namur (4 Aug., 1695); Louis XIV. made
peace (29 June, 1696) with Victor Amadeus II. of Savoy, who recov-
ered Pignerol and Casale, and whose daughter married the eldest grand-
son of Louis ; he declared himself the ally of France.
Negotiations for peace opened at Ryswick (May, 1697): Vendome's
capture of Barcelona (10 Aug.).
The Treaties of Ryswick signed 20 Sept. and 30 Oct., 1697 •
50 The Treaties of Rysivick, i6gy.
i. I/)uis XIV. recognized William III. as King of England, but
refused to expel James II. from France,
ii. The Dutch restored Pondicherry and were allowed to garrison
the frontier towns of Belgium as " barrier fortresses."
iii. Louis XIV. restored to the Empire Philipsburg, Breisach and
Freiburg, the fortresses held by France on the right bank of
the Rhine, and all places adjudged to him or seized by him
since the Treaties of Nimeguen, except St];;§sburg, Longwy,
Sarrelouis and Landau.
iv. Leopold, Duke of Lorraine, restored to his father's dominions,
with all fortresses dismantled.
Position of the powers of Europe at the Treaties of Ryswick awaiting
the settlement of the Spanish Succession.
Authorities : Of the secondary histories cited for Lectures i6 and 17, Vol-
taire, Gaillardin, Clement, lyC Gouvernement de Louis XIV, de 1683-89 ; Rousset,
Michaud, Bausset, Lemontey, Martin ^Philippson, Filon,Lonchay, Segur-Dupeyron^
vol. ii., Ennen, Roy, Michel, Mellion, Ambert and Jal are still valuable, and of the
primary authorities Louis XIV., Dreyss, Boislisle, Depping, Foucauit, Cos-
nac. La Fare, Bussy-Rabutin, Madame de Sevigne and Griffet. To the second-
ary authorities should be added for this period Macatilay, History of England,
vols. 1-4 ; Sirtemade Grovestins, Guillaume III. et Louis XIV., 8 vols. ; Wolseley,
Life of the Duke of Marlborough to the Accession of Queen Anne ; Noailles, His-
toire de Madame de Maintenon et des principaux dvenements du regne de Louis
XIV., 4 vols.; Geffroy, Madame de Maintenon ; Wilson, James II. and the Duke
of Berwick ; Reuss, L'Alsace au XVII. ieme siecle ; Legrelle, Louis XIV. et Stras-
bourg ; Gerin, Louis XIV. et le Saint-Siege ; Schulte, Markgraf Ludwig von Baden
und der Reichskrieg gegen Frankreich, 2 vols.; Delarbre, Tourville et la marine de
son temps ; Carutti, Storia del regno di Vittorio Amedio II., and D' Haussonville,
La Duchesse de Bourgogne et 1' alliance savoyarde sous Louis XIV., and Histoire
de la reunion de la Lorraine a la France, 4 vols. To the primary authorities
add State Papers and Correspondence illustrative of the social and political state of
Europe, 1688-1715, ed. Kem,ble ; Lexington Papers, 1694-98, ed. Sutton; Span-
heim. Relation sur la cour de France en 1690 ; Madame de Maintenon, Correspond-
ance generale,and CBuvres, ed. by Lavallee, 12 vols.; the Letters of the Duchesse
d* Orleans, known as Madame Palatine, ed. by Bodemann, 2 vols, translated and
^d.Jaegle, 3 vols.; Catinat, Memoires et Correspondance, 3 vols.; Dumont von
Carlscroon, Memoires politiques pour servir a la parfaite intelligence d-e I'histoire
de la paix de Ryswick, 4 vols ; and the documents of the Peace of Ryswick, ed.
Fritsch ; the Memoires of Mdlle. de Lafayette, Madame de Caylus, the Abbe
Choisy, and Torcy, and the Journal of Dangeau, vols. 1-6.
The Siege of Vieyina, 1683, 51
I^ECTURE 20.
V o ;
THE SIEGE OF VIENNA BY THE TURKS, 1683: POLAND UNDER
JOHN SOBIESKI.
The Emperor I^opold I. (1658-1705): his character and his govern-
ment.
The Emperor Leopold I. and Hungary : his efforts (i) to extirpate
Calvinism, (2) to destroy local independence, in the portion of Hungary
left to him ; the situation after the Treaty of Vasvar (1664); the con-
spiracy of 1670 ; the office of Palatine abolished and a policy of relig-
ious persecution and Germanization adopted ; the insurrection of T6-
koli (1675-79) encouraged by Louis XIV. to embarrass the Emperor ;
effect of Western on Eastern European politics ; the Treaty of Nime-
guen (1678) followed by the Diet of CEdensberg (1681), by which the
office of Palatine was restored, arbitrary taxes abolished, all offices
thrown open to Magyars and liberty of worship promised to the Protest-
ants ; Paul Esterhazy chosen Palatine to the disgust of Tokoli.
The Emperor Leopold and Transylvania ; attitude of that province to
the Turks ; on the death of George Rakoczy II. (1660) Michael Apafy
appointed Prince of Transylvania ; recognized by both Emperor and
Sultan by the Truce of Vasvar (1664), but to pay tribute to the Sultan.
The Turks declared Tokoli Prince of Hungary (1682), and under com-
mand of the brother-in-law of Ahmad Kiuprili, Kara Mustapha, (Grand
Vizier since 1676), marched on Vienna (1683); the siege of Vienna
(March-Sept., 1683) ; its significance in history ; help demanded by
the Emperor from other states ; heroic defense of Vienna under Ernest
Riidiger von Starhemberg ; appeal for the help of John Sobieski, King
of Poland ; attempt of Louis XIV. to isolate the Emperor.
John Sobieski (b. 1629) elected King of Poland (21 May, 1674) ; feeble
reign of Michael Koributh Vichnevetski (1669-74) \ Sobieski's diffi-
culties in Poland since the Treaty of Zuravna (27 Oct., 1676); his
treaties with Russia and the Dutch ; his fame as a general ; his desire
for a crusade against the Turks ; his friendship with Pope Innocent XI.;
his disputes with Louis XIV. ; his determination to come to the help
of the Emperor with the Polish army.
52 The War with the Turks, 1684.-98.
John Sobieski, with Charles V., Duke of Lorraine (b. 1643, d. 1690),
in command of the Austrian army, defeated the Turks in their camp
(12 Sept., 1683) and raised the siege of Vienna ; pursuit of the Turks ;
capture of Gran (24 Oct.) ; execution of Kara Mustapha (25 Dec,
1683).
War with the Tux^s : first phase (1684-89); excitement caused in
Christendom by the siege of Vienna ; the ' ' Holy I^eague -^ ^(g^\AjListria,
Poland, Venice and Malta, formed by Pope Innocent XL^the Venetians
under Mor^ini gDjicju^ed the ^^reaT and AthensXi 684-87) : the Poles
in Moldavia (1686); the Duke of Lorraine captured Buda'^^ SepTT^'
1686);' he and Louis of Baden (b. 5655,4^ iTOTV^efeated the Turks at
Mohacs (12 Aug., i6§7)7^ffi?^26saries^epb^a Muhammad IV. and
placed Sulaiman II. on the throne (8 Nov., 1687) ; Michael Apafy,
Prince of Transylvania^^declarecl himself a vassal of the Emperor (28
July, 1686) ; capti'ir3l)lr]Be1grkde|&^gept~, 1688) ; Louis of Baden in-
vaded Servia ; the Russian attack on the Crimea ; Mustapha Kiuprili,
brother of Ahmad Kiuprili, appointed Grand Vizier (Sept., 1689).
The Emperor Leopold's actions on the conquest of Hungary : mas-
sacre of the friends of Tokoli ; the * ' butchery ' ' at Eperies ; the crown
of Hungary made hereditary, instead of elective, in the House of Haps-
burg (31 Oct., 1687); abolition of the coronation oath and of the right
of insurrection ; persecution of the Protestants.
War with the Turks : second phase (1689-91); the Emperor forced to
detach the Duke of Lorraine to fight Louis XIV. on the Rhine ; Louis
of Baden in command against the Turks ; Mustapha Kiuprili appointed
Tokoli Prince of Transylvania and recaptured Belgrade (1690); acces-
sion of Ahmad II. ; Louis of Baden defeated the Turks at Szalankemen
(19 Aug., 1 691) ; Mustapha Kiuprili killed ; Transylvania conquered ;
the Hapsburgs recognized as Princes of Transylvania (Dec. 1691) ;
John Sobieski's last campaign ; his march to the Pruth (1691) ; Louis
of Baden sent to the Rhine ; failure of the negotiations for peace.
War with the Turks : third phase {i6()i-(^d>') ; unimportant operations
(1691-95) ; accession of Mustapha II. (1695) ; he assumed command of
the Turkish army ; his invasion of Hungary and capture of many for-
tresses ; confusion caused by the death of John Sobieski ; Peter the
Great captured Azov (28 July, 1696) ; Prince Eugene destroyed the
The Treaty of Carlawitz, i6gg, 53
Turkish army in the battle of the Zenta (11 Sept., 1697) ; Hussain
Kiuprili appointed Grand Vizier ; the Turks forced to sue for peace.
Reasons which induced the Emperor Leopold to make peace with the
Turks ; the imminence of the falling-in of the Spanish Succession ; medi-
ation of the English and Dutch.
Treaty of Carlowitz (26 Jan., 1699) : •
i. The Emperor obtained Hungary, except the Banat of Temes-
var ; the whole of Transylvania ; Croatia ; and Slavonia as
far as the Save,
ii. Venice obtained Dalmatia and the Morea.
iii. Poland recovered Podolia with Kaminietz.
By separate treaty (3 July, 1700) Russia obtained Azov.
Since the siege of Vienna the Turks have receded in Europe : the
Treaty of Carlowitz marks the first stage of their decline.
The condition of Poland under John Sobieski : rivalry between the
Poles and Lithuanians ; the factious nobility ; SobiCvSki's schemes for
reform rejected ; he was without subsidies or support ; attitude of foreign
powers ; Sobieski's attempt to abdicate ; approach of civil war ; Sobieski's
advancement of civilization in Poland ; death of John Sobieski (17 June,
1696).
Election of the Elector Augustus of Saxony to be King of Poland
(i June, 1697).
Authorities : Among small books Leger, Autriche-Hongrie ; Creasy, Otto-
man Turks, and Morfilly Story of Poland, as before, with Maiden, History and Con-
sequences of the Defeat of the Turks before Vienna in 1683. As secondary
authorities see Co:ve, History of the House of Austria, 4 vols. ; Krones, Hand-
buch der Geschichte CEsterreichs : Mailath, Geschichte der CEsterreichischen
Kaiserstaats ; Michiels, Histoire secrete du gouvernement autrichien ; Gerando, La
Transylvanie ; Teutsch, Geschichte der Siebenbiirger Sachsen ; Klopp, Das Jahr
1683 und der folgende grosse Turkenkrieg bis zum Frieden von Carlowitz ; Thur-
heim, Feldmarschall Ernst RUdiger, Graf Stahremberg ; Roder von Diersburg,
Des Markgrafen Ludwig Wilhelm von Baden Feldziige wider die Tiirken, 2 vols. ;
Ameth, Prinz Eugen von Savoyen, 3 vols. ; Bntzzo, Francesco Morosini e la con-
questa della Morea ; Von Hammer, Histoire de I'Empire Ottoman, vols. 12, 13 ;
Coyer, Histoire de Jean Sobieski, 3 vols., and Salvandy, Histoire de Pologne avant
et sous Jean Sobieski, 3 vols,, are old-fashioned and do not give sources, but inter-
esting ; a more recent book is Waliszezvski, Maryzienka, being a sketch of the life
of Marie d' Arquien, wife of John Sobieski.
54 Russia under Peter the Great.
I^ECTURB 21.
RUSSIA UNDER PETER THE GREAT.
Condition of Russia under the first Romanovs, Michael (1613-45)
and Alexis (1645-76) : internal and foreign policy of the Tsars.
The reign of Feodor Alexievitch, eldest son of Alexis Romanov
(1676-82).
Peter Alexievitch (b. 9 June, 1672), youngest son of Alexis, recog-
nized as Tsar (7 May, 1682) ; the rising of the Streltsi at Moscow ;
Ivan v., his half brother, proclaimed joint Tsar with Peter (28 May,
1682) ; Princess Sophia made Regent.
The government of Sophia and Vasili Galitzin (1682-89) : confirma-
tion of the Peace of Kardis with Sweden and the Treaty of Androus-
sovo ; Galitzin's expedition against the Crimean Tartars (1687-89);
overthrow of Sophia ; Peter assumed the government (i7Sept., 1689).
The boyhood of Peter the Great : his education ; his character ; his
passion for boat-building ; his foreign friends ; Lefort ; his amusements
and occupations ; his longing for a navy ; condition of Russian com-
merce ; Archangel ; the Baltic ; the government of the boyars ; by
death of Ivan V., Peter became sole Tsar (8 Feb., 1696).
Peter the Great's first war ; the capture of Azov (28 July, 1696) ;
by treaty with the Turks Azov granted to Russia (3 July, 1700).
Peter the Great's visit to Western Europe (1697-98) : its political re-
sults ; its effect on Peter's character.
Destruction of the Streltsi (1698) : first steps taken for the formation
of a regular army and navy ; forcible introduction of Western usages.
First appearance of Russia in European politics : negotiations be-
tween Augustus I., Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, Frederick,
Elector of Brandenburg, Frederick IV., King of Denmark, and Peter
the Great for an attack on Sweden ; motives of the attack ; Peter's de-
sire for a port on the Baltic.
The schemes of Patkul : on behalf of the Livonian nobility he offered
lyivonia and Esthonia to Augustus, Ingria and Carelia to Peter, at an
interview between the two monarchs (July, 1698).
Russia under Peter the Great, 55
Peter the Great's invasion of Ingria : the Russians defeated by
Charles XII. at the battle of Narva (13 Nov., 1700) ; Charles XII.
marched into Poland.
Capture of Noteburgby the Russians (22 Oct., 1702), and foundation
of St. Petersburg by Peter the Great : occupation of Ingria and Ca-
relia ; capture of Narva (20 Aug., 1704).
The Tsaritsa Catherine (b. 1684) : private marriage (1707) ; public
marriage (1712) ; her influence over Peter; Menshikov (b. 1672;.
Closeness of the alliance between Peter and Augustus I. : the devasta-
tion of Livonia ; the Swedes defeated at Kalisch (29 Oct., 1706) ; Au-
gustus made peace with Charles XII. at Altranstadt (1706) ; Peter left
without allies ; the war in Lithuania ; fortification of Moscow.
Charles XII. invaded the Ukraine (1708) : treachery of Mazeppa,
Hetman of the Cossacks of the Dnieper ; the battle of Liesna (9 Oct.,
1708) ; the winter of 1708-9 ; destruction of the Swedish army at Pol-
tava (8 July, 1709) ; escape of Charles XII.; importance of the victory;
Russia takes rank with European nations ; the result of a trained and
disciplined army ; immediate effects of the victory ; Augustus, aided
by Peter, resolved to recover the Polish throne and to conquer Livonia ;
the Russians made safe in Ingria and Carelia, with an outlet to the Bal-
tic ; failure of the proposed marriage between the sister of the Emperor
and the Tsarevitch Alexis, who married Princess Charlotte of Bruns-
wick-Wolfenbiittel (25 Oct., 1711); league of Russia, Denmark and
Prussia formed against Sweden ; by Treaty of Marienwerder (i Nov.,
1709), Elbing promised to Prussia.
The partition of Poland suggested by Frederick of Prussia and Au-
gustus to Peter the Great : Frederick wanted Royal Prussia ; Augustus
was not unwilling to give it, as well as White Russia to Peter, if they
would guarantee him the rest of Poland as an hereditary monarchy.
Peter the Great's internal reforms : the new administration ; the Privy
Council in the place of the Council of Boyars ; the new departments ;
formation of the eight governments ; the taxes and financial system ;
commerce and monopolies ; encouragement of foreigners ; ecclesiastical
reforms ; reformation of the monasteries ; the Senate ; unpopularity of
these changes ; local insurrections and discontent.
Continuance of the war with Sweden : capture of Viborg (21 June,
56 Russia under Peter the Great.
1710), of Riga (July) and of Revel (September) ; occupation of I^ivonia
and Esthonia ; marriage of Peter's niece Anne to the Duke of Courland ;
occupation of Courland.
The Turks declared war against Peter the Great (i Dec, 17 10) ; Con-
stantine Brancovano, Hospodar of Wallachia, and Demetrius Cantemir,
Hospodar of Moldavia, invited him to help them to throw off their sub-
jection to the Sultan and to become the liberator of the Romanian
Christians ; Peter the Great invaded Moldavia ; surrounded by the
Turks on the Pruth ; Catherine came to his help ; by treaty of 23 July,
171 1, Peter agreed to surrender Azov, which was given up to the Turks
in 1712.
The campaigns in Pomerania (1711-13) : sequestration of Stettin.
Peter the Great's position at the time of the Treaties of Utrecht.
The greatness of the work Peter had done for Russia.
Authorities: Of small books the most readable is still, despite some mis-
takes and misconceptions, Voltaire^, Histoire de 1' empire de Russie sous Pierre le
Giand, which should be checked by the chapters on his reign in Morfill, Story of
Russia, and Rarnbaud, Histoire de la Russie, translated by L. B. Lang, 2 vols.
The best secondary authorities are Schuyler^ Peter the Great ; Waliszewski,
Pierre le Grand ; Bruckner, Peter der Grosse, and Hemnajin, Russland unter Peter
der Grosse ; more special works are Merimee, Cosaques d'autrefois, Stenka Razin ;
Wernich, Der Livlander Johann Reinhold von Patkul und seine Zeitgenossen,
and Posselt, Der General und Admiral Franz Lefort, sein I^eben und seine Zeit. 2
vols. The correspondence of English, French and German diplomatists, as well
as other papers bearing on the reign of Peter, are to be found in the "Sbornik," the
collection of documents, published by the Imperial Historical Society of St. Peters-
burg.
LECTURE 22.
CHARLES XII. OF SWEDEN.
The reign of Charles XI. of Sweden ( 1660-97) : during his minority
and the government of his mother, Hedwiga of Holstein-Gottorp,
peace was made with Poland, Denmark and Russia (1660-61), and
Charles XII. of Sweden. 57
Sweden joined the Triple Alliance (1668) ; the political position in
Sweden ; the government of the nobles, who even granted to them-
selves the crown lands.
Charles XI. assumed the government (1672) : his alliance with
France; his invasion of Brandenburg; attacked by Denmark and the
Dutch; his navy was defeated by Cornelius Tromp (11 June, 1675 y and
his army by the Great Elector at Fehrbellin (18 June, 1675); he de-
feated the Danes at Lund (11 Dec, 1675), but lost all Pomerania, and
his fleet was destroyed by Admiral Juel (11 June, 1678); by the Treaty
of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (29 June, 1679) he recovered all his lost ter-
ritory by the influence of Louis XIV.; disgusted at the action of the
"chambre de reunion" of Louis XIV. with regard to his duchy of
Deux- Fonts, he entered the secret alliance against Louis XIV. (1681);
joined the League of Augsburg (1686); and aided the Dutch with
6,000 men (1688-97).
The Revolution of 1682 : the power of the Senate had been over-
thrown with the help of the Diet (1680) ; absolute power placed in the
hands of the king by the Estates, or Diet; he resumed all lands granted
to the nobility since 1609 ; his excellent administration ; economy and
large savings ; encouragement of Swedish commerce.
Christian V., King of Denmark (1670-99) : the administration of Grif-
fenfeld ( 1670-76); result of the war with Sweden ; his troubles with Hol-
stein-Gottorp ; the Convention of Altona (1691); his attempts to imitate
Louis XIV. ; his creation of a privileged nobility ; excellence of his
navy and commerce ; his administration ; his invasion of Schleswig
(1698) ; succeeded by Frederick IV. (1699),
Charles XII. of Sweden (b. 1682^ : succeeded his father (1697); ^is
education and character ; declared of age (1699); danger threatened by
the alliance against him of Denmark, Brandenburg, Saxony, Poland and
Russia.
The first campaign of Charles XII. : his invasion of Denmark in aid
of his cousin and brother-in-law, the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (July,
1700) ; attack on Copenhagen ; Frederick IV. made the Treaty of Tra-
vandahl (18 Aug., 1700), granting practical sovereignty to the Duke in
Schleswig.
The second campaign of Charles XII. ; he defeated the Russians at
58 Charles XII. of Sweden,
Narva (30 Nov., 1700) and the Saxons at Klissow (19 July, 1702), and
at Pultusk (I May, 17031.
Charles XII. despised Russia and resolved to drive Augustus I. out
of Poland ; the Polish Diet declared the throne of Poland vacant ; elec-
tion of Stanislas Leczinski as King of Poland (12 July, 1704) ; Charles
XII. invaded Saxony ; by the Treaty of Altranstadt (24 Sept., 1706)
Augustus recognized Stanislas as king ; execution of Patkul (10 Oct.) ;
commanding position of Charles XII. in European politics ; expectation
of his intervention in the War of the Spanish Succession ; visit of Marl-
borough to his camp.
Charles XII. invaded the Ukraine (1708) : his army destroyed or cap-
tured by Peter the Great at Poltava (11 July, 1709); his escape to
Bender ; his efforts to induce the Turks to attack Russia ; arrested by
the Turks and imprisoned at Adrianople (17 13).
The Northern War during the residence of Charles XII. at Bender :
Augustus I. disregarded the Treaty of Altranstadt and with Peter the
Great reconquered Poland ; Stanislas Leczinski escaped to Sweden
C1710) and joined Charles XII. at Bender (17 13) ; the Russians recon-
quered Esthonia and the shores of the Gulf of Finland ; Frederick IV.
of Denmark invaded Sweden, but was defeated by Stenbock (b. 1664,
d. 1 717) at Helsingborg (10 March, 17 10); Stenbock defeated the
Danes at Gadebusch (20 Dec, 17 12) and burnt Altona ; joined by the
Duke of Holstein-Gottorp ; Stenbock forced to surrender at Tonning
(May, 17 13) ; the Danes conquered Bremen and Verden ; campaign of
the Russians, Prussians, Saxons and Danes in Pomerania ; the wholtj
province occupied, except Stralsund.
Position of the northern powers at the Treaties of Utrecht : exhausted
condition of Sweden ; triumphant attitude of Russia, Prussia and Den-
mark ; Sweden ceased to be a great power ; the position given her by
the Treaties of Westphalia too great for her to hold ; sources of her
strength and weakness.
The character and career of Charles XII.: "the Madman of the
North."
Authorities: The best small books are, Voltaire, Charles XII.; Bain,
Charles XII. and the Collapse of the Swedish Empire ; Otte, Scandinavian History,
and Geffroy, I^es :^tats Scandinaves For more detailed information see Wernich,
The Spanish Succession. 59
cited under Lecture 21; Lundblad, Geschichfe Karls des Zwcilften. 2 vols.; Beskow^
Karl'der Tolfte, and Sarauzu, Die Feldzuge Karls XII,; while Schuyler^ Peter the
Great; Morfill^ Story of Poland, and Tutile, History of Prussia, can be consulted
for the Russian, Polish and Prussian sides of the Northern War. The general his-
tories of Sweden by Fryxell^ and by Geijer, translated into German and continued
by Carlson^ devote much space to the reigns of Charles XI. and Charles XII.
LECTURE 23.
THE SPANISH SUCCESSION.
The question of the succession to the Spanish dominions upon the
long-expected death of the childless Charles II. was the most important
question in European politics for half a century: efforts made to settle
the question by peaceful means; the doctrine of the Balance of Power.
The reign of Charles II. of Spain (i 665-1 700): the regency of the
queen-mother, Donna Marianna (1665-75); the influence of P^re
Nithard (1665-69); he was forced to retire by Don John; the king
declared of age (1675); the government of Don John (1675-79); Spain
lost French Flanders and Franche-Comte by the Treaties of Nimeguen
(1678).
Feeble health of the king: the influence of his first wife, a French
princess, Maria Louisa of Orleans (1679-89); her quarrels with her
mother-in-law; influence of his second wife, Marianna of Neuburg,
exercised in favor of Austria; position and influence of Cardinal Porto
Carrero (b. 1631, d. 1709); his support of the claims of the Electoral
Prince of Bavaria, and after his death of those of the Duke of Anjou;
Spain invaded by the French (1694-97), but lost nothing by the Treaties
of Ryswick (1697); steady decline of Spanish power and prosperity.
The Secret Partition Treaty between Louis XIV. and the Emperor
Leopold (19 Jan., 1668) : Louis to have the Catholic Netherlands,
Franche-Comte, Navarre, the Philippine Islands, the African settle-
ments, Naples, Sicily and northern Catalonia; Leopold to have Spain,
the Canary Islands, the Indies, Sardinia, Milan, Finale and the Tuscan
6o The Spanish Succession.
presidios ; these terms made impossible by the Treaties of Ryswick.
The claimants to the Spanish Succession and their claims : Philip,
Duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV.; the Archduke Charles,
younger son of the Emperor Leopold ; and the Electoral Prince of Ba-
varia. (See Appendix V.)
Charles II. recognized the Electoral Prince of Bavaria as heir to all
his dominions (1696).
The First Partition Treaty between William III. and Louis XIV.
(11 Oct., 1698): the Electoral Prince to have Spain, Sardinia, the
Indies and the Catholic Netherlands; Charles to have the Milanese;
Philip to have Naples, Sicily, Finale, the Tuscan presidios and Gui-
puzcoa; arrangement accepted by Spain; death of the Electoral Prince
of Bavaria, at Brussels (6 Feb., 1699).
The Second Partition Treaty between William III. and Louis XIV.
(13 Mar., 1700): Charles to have Spain, the Indies, the Netherlands
and Sardinia; Philip to have the same as before, with the addition of the
Milanese, which was to be exchanged for Lorraine.
Intrigues around the death bed of the king at Madrid : Charles II.
made a will leaving all the Spanish possessions to Philip (2 Oct.,
1700*) and died (i Nov., 1700).
Louis XIV. accepted the will and acknowledged his grandson as
ruler of all the Spanish dominions (16 Nov., 1700); "the Pyrenees no
longer exist"; the Duke of Anjou proclaimed King of Spain at Mad-
rid as Philip V. (24 Nov., 1700); crowned at Madrid (10 Apr., 1701);
his title was recognized reluctantly by William III. ; his marriage to
Marie Gabrielle of Savoy (11 Sept., 1701).
First mistake of Louis XIV.: introduction of French troops into the
" barrier fortresses " (6 Feb., 1701); formation of the Grand Alliance (7
Sept., 1701) between the Emperor, England, the Dutch and the King
of Prussia ; second mistake of Louis XIV. : recognition of the Pretender
as King of England after the death of James II. (17 Sept., 1701); the
English Parliament enthusiastic for war ; death of William III. (19
March, 1702) and accession of Queen Anne.
The Grand Alliance against Louis XIV. joined by the Empire (30
Sept., 1702); its leading spirits the Duke of Marlborough (b. 1650, d.
1722); Prince Eugene (b. 1663, d. 1736) in the service of the Emperor;
War of the Spanish Succession, 6l
and the Grand Pensionary Heinsius (b, 164 1, d. 1720); the allies of
France were the Dukes of Modeiia, Mantua, Guastalla and Savoy, and
the Electors of Bavaria and Cologne ; the Duke of Savoy for his alli-
ance obtained the hand of the new king for his second daughter ; the
chief French generals were Vendome (b. 1654, d. 17 12); Villars (b.
1653, d. 1734); Tallard (b. 1652, d. 1728); ViUeroi (b. 1644, d. 1730),
and Berwick (b. 1670, d. 1734). u* , .-. .
The advantages possessed by Louis XIV. at the commencement of
the War of the Spanish Succesion : central position and centralized
government.
Authorities : For Spain during the reign of Charies II., see Diinlop, Memoirs
of Spain during the Reigns of Phihp IV. and Charles II.; Weiss, l^'Espagne depuis
le regne de Philippe II., jusqu'd I'av^nement des Bourbons; Alexander Stan-
hope, Spain under Charles II. (1690-99); and Villars, M^moires sur la cour
d'Espagne (1679-81) and Muret, Lettres ^crites de Madrid en 1666-67. both ed. by
Morel Fatio. For the diplomatic history of the period, see Macaulay, Sirtema de
Grovestins, Kemble, and Lexington Papers, cited under Lecture 19 ; Reynold^
Louis XIV. et Guillame III., histoire des deux trait^s de partage et du testament
de Charles II.; Courcy, La coalition de 1701 contre la France, and Renonciation
des Bourbons au trone d'Espagne ; Legrelle, La diplomatie frangaise et la succes-
sion d'Espagna ; Hippeau, Av^nement des Bourbons au trone d'Espagne, corre-
spondance in^dite du marquis d'Harcourt; Gritnblot, Letters of William IIJ. and
Louis XIV. (1697-1700); Loiiville, Memoires secrets sur I'dtablissement de la
maison de Bourbon en Espagne; Gddeke, Die Politik CEsterreichs in der spanischen
Erbfolgegrage, and Mignet, N^gociatious relatives a la succession d'Espagne sous
Louis XIV. (to 1679).
LECTURE 24.
THE WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION, 1701-14.
The War of the Spanish Succession : the four theatres of the war,
the Netherlands Germany, Italy and Spain.
Campaign of 1701 : Eugene turned the position of Catinat in Lom-
bardy and defeated Villeroi at Chiari (i Sept.).
62 War of the Spanish Succession,
Campaign of 1702 : Eugene surprised Villeroi at Cremona (i Feb.) ;
the Dukes of Modena and Guastalla abandoned France ; Vendome de-
feated Eugene at Luzzara (15 Aug.) ; Louis of Baden invaded Alsace
and seized Landau (10 Sept.); Bavaria declared war and occupied Ulm
(8 Sept.) ; Villars defeated Louis of Baden at Friedlingen (14 Oct.) ;
Marlborough captured Liege and other fortresses on the Meuse.
Campaign of 1703 : the Emperor recognized his son Charles as King
of Spain (Sept.); French plan of marching on Vienna ; Francis Rakoczy
raised an insurrection in Hungary ; critical position of the Emperor ;
Villars entered Bavaria ; Vendome entered the Tyrol ; Vendome forced
to retire owing to the conduct of Victor Amadeus of Savoy, who joined
the Allies (8 Nov.) ; importance of this event ; the Duke received from
the Emperor Alessandria, Valenza, the Val Sesia and the Lomelline ;
Villars defeated the Austrians at Hochstadt (21 Sept.) ; Tallard de-
feated the Imperialists before Spires (14 Nov.) and recaptured Landau
(17 Nov.) ; Marlborough took Bonn (May) and occupied the Electorate
of Cologne ; insurrection in the Cevennes of the Protestants, known as
the " Camisards", under Cavalier ; Portugal joined the Grand Alliance
(16 May).
Campaign of 1 704 : Vend6me conquered Piedmont ; successes of
Rakoczy ; Marlborough joined Eugene in Bavaria and crushed Tallard
at Blenheim (13 Aug.) ; Louis of Baden retook Landau (24 Nov.) and
Marlborough, Treves ; importance of the battle of Blenheim ; Sir
George Rooke seized Gibraltar (4 Aug.) ; the Archduke Charles landed
at Lisbon, escorted by an English fleet (May), and was recognized as
King of Spain by the King of Portugal.
Campaign of 1705 : Joseph I. succeeded Leopold as Emperor (6 May);
his conciliatory policy towards Hungary ; Villars put down the revolt
in the Cevennes, took Wissembourg and invaded Baden ; Vendome be-
sieged Turin and defeated Eugene at Cassano (16 Aug.) ; Marlborough
in the Catholic Netherlands ; Galway invaded Spain from Portugal ;
Peterborough (b. 1658, d. 1735) took Barcelona (13 Sept.), and Cata-
lonia declared for the Archduke Charles.
Campaign of 1706 : Galway occupied Madrid (2 July), but the Span-
iards rose for Philip V. and drove him out (Auo^.) ; Peterborough took
Valencia and relieved Barcelona ; Eugene defeated Orleans, relieved
War of the Spanish Succession. 63
Turin, (7 Sept.) and drove the French out of Italy ; Villars retook Lau-
terbourg and Hagueuau ; Marlborough crushed Viileroi at RamUlies
(23^ay) and occupied the Catholic Netherlands, y^^ 7y-vLC>w/i >u
Campaign of 1707 : Berwick defeated Galway at Almanza (15 April) ;
all Spain, except Catalonia, now supported Philip V.; Naples ac-
knowledged the Archduke Charles ; the Emperor confiscated the duchy
of Mantua, and granted Montferrat and Casale to the Duke of Savoy,
but added Mantua to the Milanese ; Eugene and the Duke of Savoy
iQvaded France and besieged Toulon ; Villars stormed Stolhofen (23
May), invaded Germany and invited Charles XII. of Sweden to join
him ; Marlborough conducted no itnportant military operations, but
visited Charles XII. and kept him from intervening.
Campaign of 1708: Rakoczy, utterly defeated, escaped to Poland;
Stanhope took Port Mahon, in Minorca ; the Austrians, under Daun,
occupied Naples and Sardinia ; Pope Clement XI. prepared to resist ;
Vendome conquered the Catholic Netherlands, but was defeated by
Marlborough and Eugene at Oudenarde Tii Tulv). ; the Allies invaded
France ; capture of Lille (22 Oct.). 3^-L rs-^ ^ ^ ^O^Ur^^o^^^
Negotiations of Louis XIV. for peace; the demands of the Allies;
Louis appealed to France and continued the war.
Campaign of 1709: the Pope, by the approach of Austrian troops,
forced to recognize the Archduke Charles as King of Spain (15 Jan.) ,
Marlijornugh and Eugene took Tournai (2 Sept.); the battle of JNIal^.
Plaquet (11 Sept.). X{,^,,^^^iuua ^ ^^ -r v-^.^. Xr^^tu^^ '~"
Negotiations of Geertruidenberg.
Campaign of 17 10: Guido Starhemberg and Stanhope (b. 1673, d.
1721) defeated Philip V. at Almenara (27 July) and Saragossa (20 Aug.);
the Archduke Charles occupied Madrid (21 Sept.); Vendome made
Stanhope prisoner at Brihuega (9 Dec.) and defeated Starhemberg at
Villa Viciosa (10 Dec.) ; Marlborough and Eugene took Douai (25
June), Bethune (29 Aug.) and Aire (8 Nov.); conquest of Acadia;
capture of Port Royal (16 Oct.). ^ ^
General wearmess^of the war : the Tory Ministry formed in Eng-
land (17 10) ; the Archduke Charles succeeded his brother, Joseph I.
(17 April. 171 1) ; elected Emperor as Charles VI.; effect of this change.
Campaign of 171 1 : Marlborough captured Bouchain (12 Sept.);
64 War of the Spanish Succession.
Torcy (b. 1665, d. 1746) and_Bolingbroke (b. 1678, d. 1751), the
French and English ministers, secretly arranged preliminaries of peace ;
Marlborough removed from the command of the army (31 Dec); Du-
guay Trouin captured Rio de Janeiro (23 Sept.).
The congress of plenipotentiaries to decide on terms of peace met at
Utrecht (Jan., 17 12).
Campaign of 1712!. truce made by the English (17 July); Villars
defeated Eugene at Denain (24 July) and recaptured Douai (8 Sept.),
Ee Quesnoy (4 Oct.) and Bouchain (18 Oct.).
The Emperor refused to accept the Treaties of Utrecht, signed 11
April, 17 13, and continued, the war.
Villars took Eandau (20 Aug.) and Freiburg (3 Nov.).
The Emperor made peace with France at Rastadt (7 March, 17 14);
the treaty confirmed by the Empire at Baden (7 Sept., 17 14).
Contrast between the War of the Spanish Succession and the Thirty
Years' War.
Authorities-: For a short account of the War of the Spanish Succession see
Stanhope, History of England during the Reign of Queen Anne, 2 vols. Among
general secondary authorities see Philippson, Das Zeitalter Ludwig's des
Vierzehnten ; Wyon, History of Great Britain during the Reign of Queen Anne,
2 vols. ; Cojre, Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon ; Reynald,
Guerre de la succession d'Bspagne ; ndgocialions entre la France, I'Angleterre et la
Hollande (1705-06); Moret, Quinze Ans du regne de Louis XIV., 3 vols.; Noailtes,
Histoire de Madame de Maintenon, 4 vols. ; Von Noorden, Europaische Geschichte
im Achtzehnten Jahrhundert, vols. 1-3 ; Krohn, Die letzten Lebensjahre Ludwigs
XIV.; Ennen, Der spanische Erbfolgekrieg und der Churfiirst Joseph Clemens von
Coin; Gachard, Histoire de la Belgique au commencement du XVIII. siecle;
Caruttiy Storia del regno di Vittorio Amadeo, and Landau, Geschichte Kaiser.
Karls VI. als Konig von Spanien, and Rome, Wien, Neapel wahrend des spanischer
Erbfolgekrieges. Among diplomatic secondary authorities see Legrelle, La
diplomatic fran^aise et la succession d'Bspagne, 4 vols., and Une ndgociation iu-
connue entre Berwick et Marlborough (1708-9) ; Fazy, Les Suisses et la neutrality
de Savoie (1703-4); Hill, Diplomatic Correspondence from the Court of Savoy
(July, 1703, to May, 1706), ed, Blackley ; D'' Haussonville , ha duchesse de Bour-
gogne et I'alliance savoyarde sous Louis XIV.; Cooke, Memoirs of Lord Boling-
broke, and Gddeke, Die Politik CEsterreichs in der spanischen Erbfolgefrage.
Among military secondary authorities see Cojire, Memoirs of the Duke of
Marlborough, 6 vols.; Alison, Military Life of the Duke of Marlborough ; Stan-
hope, History of the War of the Succession in Spain ; Parnell, The War of the
The Treaties of Utrecht, 65
Succession in Spain ; Wilson, The Duke of Berwick, Marshal of France; I'ogui,
Villars; Du Casse, L'amiial Du Casse (1646-1715); Malleson, Prince Eugene of
Savoy; Babeau, La marechal do Villars, gouverneur de Proven9e; Court de Gcbelin^
Histoire dcs troubles des Cevennes ; Arneth, Prinz Eugcn von Savoyen, 3 vols.,
and Leben des Feldmarschalls Graf Guido Stahremberg ; and Ottieri, Istoria delle
guerre avveuute in Europa e particolaramente in Italia (1696-1725) 5 vols. The
chief primary authorities are Pelet, M^moires militaires relatifs d la succession
d'Espagne, 11 vols. (Collection des Documents in^dits), and Matuschka, Feldziige
des Prinzen Eugen von Savoyen, 17 vols. ; Heller, Militarise he Korrespondenz des
Prinzen Eugen von Savoyen (1694-1705), 3 vols.; Bellerive, Histoire des derni^res
campagnes du Ducde Veudosme ; but see also Baudrillart, Philippe V. d'Espagne
et la cour de France, 3 vols ; Murray, Letters and Despatches of Marlborough, 5
vois.; Rambuteau, Lettres du marechal de Tess^ (1701-14); Rodervon Diersburg,
Kriegs- und Staats-schriften des Markgrafen Ludwig Wilhelm von Baden iiber dea
spanischen Erbfolgekrieg ; Fiedler, Actenstiicke zur Geschichte Franz Rdk6czy's
(Fontes rerum Austriacarum, vols. ix. and xvii. ); Lamberty, Memoires pour servir
a I'histoire du XVIIIi^me siecle, 14 vols., and the Memoires of Berwick, Villars,
Duguay-Trouin^ Forbin and Torcyt with the Journal in^dit, 1709-1711, of Torcy\
edited by Masson.
LECTURE 25.
THE TREATIES OF UTRECHT.
The first negotiations made by Louis XIV. after Ramillies (1706) ;
his attempt to detach the Dutch from the Grand Alliance ; refusal of
the Grand Pensionary, Heinsius, to treat separately (19 Nov.).
Second negotiations at the Hague with the Allies after Gudenarde and
the loss of Lille (May-June, 1709) ; hard terms offered to Louis XIV.
(28 May) ; his refusal to accept themi (2 June).
Conference at Geertruidenberg after Malplaquet (March-July, 1710) ;
Louis XIV. willing to accept the terms offered at the Hague ; the con-
ference broken up (25 July).
Effect on the situation of the accession of the Tories to power in Eng-
land (1710) and of the recall of Marlborough (1711).
Death of the Dauphin (14 April, 1711).^^^
Congress for peace opened at Utrecht (w Jan., 1712) ; the chief plenl-
66 The Treaties of Utrecht.
potentiaries, Torcy for France, Bolingbroke for England, Heinsius for
the Protestant Netherlands and Mellarede for Savoy ; progress of the
negotiations ; treaties of peace signed between France, England, the
Netherlands, Prussia and Savoy, at Utrecht (ii April, 1713) ; the
Etnperor Charles VI. continued at war with France and Spain.
Treaties signed between France and the Emperor at Rastadt (7 March,
1714), confirmed by the Empire at Baden (7 Sept., 1714), and between
Spain and Portugal at Madrid (6 Feb., 1715); but theEmpeior madeno
peace with Spain and refused to acknowledge Philip V.
The whole series may be considered together as the Treaties of
Utrecht.
Chief provisions: A. The Spanish succession. 2. Philip V. recog-
nized as King of Spain and the Indies, on condition that the crowns of
Spain and France should never be united, ii. The Emperor Charles
VI. received the Milanese, Naples, Sardinia and the Catholic Nether-
lands, iti. Victor Amadeus II. of Savoy received Sicily, iv. England
received Gibraltar and Minorca.
B. Louis XIV. of France restored Tournai, Ypres and Furnes to the
Catholic Netherlands, but in other respects maintained his borders as
settled by the Treaties of Ryswick ; the principality of Orange in the
south of France, which had belonged to William III., was granted to
Louis XIV.; he ceded Acadia (Nova Scotia) to England, recognized
the Protestant Succession, and promised to expel the Stuart Pretender
and to dismantle Dunkirk.
C. England received Gibraltar and Minorca from Spain, and Acadia
from France ; her sovereignty in Newfoundland (subject to certain fish-
ing rights) and Hudson's Bay recognized; the Protestant succession in
the line of Hanover acknowledged ; and by an Assiento she obtained
certain rights of commerce with Spanish South America.
D. The Emperor Charles VI. received the Catholic Netherlands, sub-
ject to an arrangement with the Dutch; Naples, with the Tuscan pre-
sidios, which were governed from Naples until 1801 ; Sardinia ; the
Milanese, together with Mantua, whose last Gonzaga duke had di(.d
in 1708 ; and Finale, which he sold to Genoa on 20 August, 1713.
E. The creation of the Electorate of Hanover (1692) recognized.
F. The Elector of Bavaria and the Elector- Archbishop of Cologne,
Prince Joseph Clement of Bavaria, restored to their dominions.
The Treaties of Utrecht. 67
G. The title of the King of Prussia recognized; in satisfaction of his
claims as heir to William III., he received Upper or Spanish Gelder-
land and was confirmed in the possession of Neufchdtel.
H. The Dutch have the closing of the Scheldt to commerce and their
right to garrison the eight "barrier fortresses" in the Catholic Nether-
lands— Charleroi, Furnes, Ghent, Menin, Mons, Namur, Tournai and
Ypres— confirmed.
I. Victor Amadeus II., Duke of Savoy, had the cessions of Alessan-
dria, Valenza, the Val Sesia and the Lomelline, granted in 1703, and of
Casale and Montferrat, granted in 1707 from the duchy of Mantua,
confirmed, and received Sicily, with the title of King of Sicily.
J. The Catalans abandoned.
Importance of the Treaties of Utrecht : comparison with the Treaties
of Westphalia ; the most notable points ; France left upon the Rhine and
in close alliance with Spain; England showed further development in
the direction of commerce and colonies ; the dominions of the House of
Hapsburg became nominally larger but more unwieldy and less Ger-
man; Spain lost its Italian and Belgian possessions and was confined,
in Europe, to the Peninsula ; Brandenburg took a step in advance
among the nations in becoming the kingdom of Prussia, and Savoy
also became a kingdom with its chief interests in Italy.
The doctrine of the Balance of Power in the Treaties of Utrecht ;
neglect of the Principle of Nationality.
Authorities : Most of the general and diplomatic secondary atttborities
cited under Lectures 23 and 24 devote much space to the Treaties of Utrecht. Good
special volumes have been written by Gerard, The Treaty of Utrecht; Giratid, Le
trait6 d'Utrecht, and Weber^ Der Friede von Utrecht, and & primary authority
of importance is Torcy, M4moires.
LECTURE 26.
GERMANY TO 1715.
Comparison between the condition of Germany after the Treaties of
Utrecht and the Treaties of Westphalia.
68 The Holy Roman Empire to I'/iS-
The Holy Roman Empire : constant election of the chief of the
House of Austria to be Emperor owing to the votes he commanded as
the leading Catholic power ; decreasing influence of the Emperors in
German affairs; the perpetual capitulation; changes in the constitution
of the Empire.
i. Recognition of Prussia as a kingdom: the Emperor Leopold
agreed to give the Elector Frederick of Brandenburg the
title of King of Prussia, as Prussia was a state independent
of the Empire, in return for assistance in the War of the
Spanish Succession; the other powers of Europe recognized
the title by the Treaties of Utrecht; as a member of the
Empire he remained Elector of Brandenburg.
ii. College of Electors: the Emperor Leopold made the Duke of
Hanover an Elector (1692), at the same time restoring the
full electoral powers to the kingdom of Bohemia ; opposition
of the other Electors and of the Princes of the Empire ;
league formed against the new electorate (1700) ; the Emperor
promised to make no further electorates without the consent
_oftheJEmpire (1706) ; electorate of Hanover accepted by the
Diet (1710).
Hi. CoUege of Princes : the Emperor's right to create new Princes
limited (1654) ; settlement of the " collegiate " votes ; crea-
tion of new Princes made still more difficult and dependent
on the consent of the Electoral College, the Princely College
and his Bench(i7ii) ; growth of the custom of primogeni-
ture and its effect in causing the accumulation of votes ; ex-
ception of Saxony.
iv. College of Free Cities : its decay owing to the falling off in the
prosperity of the cities ; only the three Hansa cities remained
powerful ; conquest of Miinster by Bishop Galen (1661), of
Erfurt by the Elector of Mayence (1664), of Magdeburg by
the Elector of Brandenburg (1666), of Brunswick by the
Duke of Brunswick (1671) and seizure of vStrasburg by Louis
XIV. (1681) ; general tendency of the Free Cities to decline
in importance.
V, The Imperial Diet: its policy after it became perpetual and
Austria to 17 fS- 69
attended only by envoys ; disputes about precedence ; its
cumbrous procedure ; inefficiency of its military action.
VI. The Imperial Chamber : its seat moved from Spires, after the
burning of that city by the French in the devastation of the
Palatinate in 1689, to Wetzlar in 1691 ; quarrels among the
assessors; the Chamber dissolved ( 1 700) ; its reorganization.
vil. The Aulic Council : its claim to deal with cases concerning
States.
viii. The religious question : the application of the doctrine ' ' cujus
regio, ejus religio ' ' ; failure of the modifications arranged by
the Treaties of Westphalia ; the persecution of the Protest-
ants in the Palatinate.
ix. The question of coinage : agreement made between Saxony,
Brandenburg and Brunswick at Zinna (1667) and at Leipzig
(1690).
X. The Gregorian Calendar adopted by the Protestant States by
a decree of the Diet (1700).
Austria : additional dominions gained by the Treaties of Utrecht, no
additional strength ; the more valuable gains of the Treaty of Carlowitz
in Hungary and Transylvania tended to turn its policy still more to-
wards the East ; internal administration ; the rebellion of Francis
Rakoczy, grandson of George Rakoczy II., Prince of Transylvania and
stepson of Tokoli, in Hungary (i 703-11) ; the brief reign of Joseph
I. ( 1 705-11) ; his concessions to the Hungarians and consequent over-
throw of Rakoczy ; his concessions to the Protestants of Silesia at the
request of Charles XII. of Sweden ; his penal code and the promise of
his reign ; the Emperor Charles VI. crowned King of Hungary (17 12) ;
his settlement of Hungary.
Prussia : the aims of Frederick III., Elector of Brandenburg (1688-
17 13), to become a king and to increase his dominions ; his character ;
his policy.
i. His foreign policy : he pursued the ideas of the Great Elector;
he joined the League of Augsburg (1688) and sent i5,o?o
men to serve under William III. against France (1691-97) ;
he sent 6,000 men to assist the Emperor against the Turks
(1691-99) ; he sent 26,000 men to serve through the War of
70 Prussia to 17 15.
the Spanish Succession (1702-13) ; his conduct in the North-
ern War ; his propositions to Peter the Great for a partition of
Poland.
ii. His arrangements for the title of king : he promised aid in the
War of the Spanish Succession, to excuse the Emperor's debts
to him, to vote for an Austrian prince for Emperor, and to
use only his title as Elector in the Imperial Diet ; he crowned
himself at Konigsberg as Frederick I., King of Prussia (18
Jan., 1 701) ; importance of this step ; the title recognized by
the Treaties of Utrecht.
Hi. His territorial policy : he restored Schwebus to Austria with-
out abandoning his claims on Silesia (1694); he purchased
Nordhausen of the Elector of Saxony (1697); ^^ took pos-
session of Elbing in Polish Prussia (1703) ; he occupied
Moeurs, lyingen, Heristal and Turnhout, as heir of William
III. (1702), and they were confirmed to him by the Emperor
(1707) ; he seized Upper Gelderland (1703), which was ceded
to Prussia, in compensation for the loss of the principality of
Orange, by the Treaties of Utrecht ; he was elected Prince
of Neufchtel (1707) and purchased the county of Tecklen-
burg (1707).
iv. His internal policy : he followed the lines of the Great Elector
and prepared the way for Frederick William I.; foundation
of the University of Halle (1694).
V. Accession of Frederick William I. (25 Feb., 17 13): by the
Treaties of Utrecht his royal title was recognized and his
possession of Neufchatel and Upper Gelderland confirmed ;
he occupied Stettin and Wismar in sequestration during the
war against Sweden.
Other states of Germany :
i. Electoral Saxony : division made on the death of John George
I. (1656); its prosperity sacrificed to the Polish policy of
Augustus I.; when elected King of Poland (1697) he be-
came a Catholic, but was yet allowed to remain the Director
of the Protestant party in the Diet, his change of faith be-
ing personal and not political ; by a convention (1700) re-
ligious matters were left to the Duke of Saxe-Weissenfels.
Germany to 17 15. 7 1
ii. Ducal Saxony : the rule of Duke Ernest the Pious of Saxe-
Gotha (1640-74); further division made (1680), but no more
votes allowed in the College of Princes.
ni. Bavaria: Ferdinand Maria, Elector (1651-79) ; his refusal to
be a candidate for the Empire (1657); quarrels with the
Elector Palatine about the Vicariate of the Empire ; no Ba-
varian Diet or Landtag summoned after 1669 ; Maximilian
Emmanuel, Elector ( 1679- 1726); candidature of his son, the
Electoral Prince, for the throne of Spain ; joined Louis
XIV. in the War of the Spanish Succession ; his campaigns
in the Tyrol ; put to the ban of the Empire, and from the
battle of Blenheim in 1704 to 17 14 Bavaria was administered
by the Emperors ; he acted as Governor- General of the
Spanish Netherlands under Charles II. from 1692 to 1701,
and again under Philip V. from 1702 until driven out after
the battle of Ramillies (1706); restored to his dominions by
the Treaty of Rastadt ; condition of Bavaria under Austrian
rule.
iv. The Palatinate : the last Protestant Electors of the House of
Simmern, Charles Louis I. (1648-80) and Charles Louis II.
(1680-85); Charles Louis I. joined the league against Louis
XIV. (1672); devastation of the Palatinate by Turenne
(1675); the question of the succession (1685); the claims of
Louis XIV. ; Philip William of Neuburg succeeded ; fresh
devastation of the Palatinate by Duras (1689); destruction of
Heidelberg, Mannheim, Spires, etc.; accession of John Wil-
liam (1691); his ardent Catholicism ; persecution p£__tlie
Protestants ; extensive emigration - PhilSTWilTiam paid
300,000 scudi (a scudo at this time almost equallea a dollar)
to Louis XIV. to compensate for his claims ; his internal
government ; he moved his capital from Heidelberg to Mann-
heim (1720).
V. Hanover : character and career of Ernest Augustus (b. 1629),
fourth son of the Duke of Brunswick-Liineburg and first
Elector of Hanover ; married Sophia, daughter of Frederick
v., Elector Palatine, and grand-daughter of James I., of
72 Gennany to I'/i^.
England (1658); his reputation as a statesman and a soldier ;
he made peace between England and the Dutch (1667); be-
came William III.'s chief German ally, and his intermediary
with Brandenburg and the Emperor ; he took the title of
Duke of Hanover (1679); helped to form the League of Augs-
burg (i688)7an^"was^ade Elector of Hanover (i6q£): his
share in the Treaty of Ryswick ; established primogeniture
in his family ; his death (1697) \ the Elector George I.; his
increased importance in German aflfairs after his m^tiiej- was
recognized by the English_PadiamQaL as heirj£L.Engl^nd
(1701); he united the Duchy of Zell (1705); his policy ; his
territorial importance between Brandenburg and the United
Provinces ; his attitude toward France and the Emperor ;
admitted to the Diet as an Elector (17 10); the Hanoverian
succession to Great Britain recognized by the Treaties of
Utrecht (17 13); death of the Elec tress Sophia (8 June, 17 14);
George I. succeeded Queen Anne in England (i Aug., 17 14).
vi. The ecclesiastical Electors and Princes of the Empire: methods
of their government ; restrained by the capitulations made
with them at their election by the chapters ; the power of
the chapters ; large sums paid to the Popes.
The petty princes of Germany : their imitation of Louis XIV. in
their absolutism, in refusing to summon or consult their Estates or
Diets, in their extravagance and in their court ceremonials.
Authorities : For the condition of Germany in 1715 in addition to works like
those of Ltger, cited under Lecture 9, dealing with general history, see Bieder-
tnanfiy Deutschland im achtzehnten Jahrhundert : Vol. i., Deutschlands poUtische,
materielle und sociale Zustande ; for the Empire, see Putter, Historical Develop-
ment of the Constitution of the Germanic Empire, translated by Dornford, vol.
ii. ; for the relations between Austria and Prussia, Pribram, CB^terreich und Bran-
denburg (1681-86) and CEsterreich und Brandenburg (1688-1700) ; for Austria,
Krones, Handbuch der Geschichte (Esterreichs, 5 vols.; Mailath, Geschichte der CEs-
terreichischen Kaiserstaats ; Huber, Geschichte der CEsterreichischen Verwaltungs-
organisation ; Coxe, History of the House of Austria, 4 vols., and Bidennann, Ge-
schichte der CEsterreichischen Gesammt-Staats-Idee ; for Prussia, in addition to the
general works cited under Lecture 18, Ledebur, Konig Friedrioh I. von Preussen ;
WaddingtoUy L'acquisition de la couronne royale de Prusse par les Hohenzollern ;
The Mediterranea7i in ijt^. 73
Varnhagen von Ense, Leben der Konigin Sophie Charlotte, 3 vols.; Dohna.
M^moires originaux sur le regne et la conr de Frederic I.; Bourgeois, Ncufchatel
et la politique prussienne en Franche-Conit^ (1702-13), and Lavisse, Etudes sur
I'histoire de Prusse; for Electoral Saxony, Boftiger, Geschichte des Kurstaates und
Konigreichs Sachsen, 3 vols.; for Ducal Saxony, Gelbke, Herzog Ernst der Erste,
genannt der Fromme, and Beck, Ernst der Fromme ; for Bavaria, Schreiber,
Geschichte Bayerns, 2 vols.; fur the Palatiuate, Haiisser, Geschichte der rhein-
ischen Pfalz, 2 vols, and for Hanover, Heinemaiin, Geschichte von Braunschweig
und Hannover; Kocher, Geschichte von Hannover und Braunschweig (1648-1714)
and IMemoiren der Kurfursiin Sophie von Hannover; Leibnitz, Correspondance
avec I'electrice Sophie, vols. 7-9 of his Werke, and Spittler, Geschichte des Fiir-
slenthums Hannover in vols. 6 and 7 of his Sammtliche Werke.
LECTURE 27.
THE SOUTHERN COUNTRIES OF EUROPE TO 1715.
Decreasing naval importance of the Mediterranean countries : the
commerce of the Levant passed to the Dutch and the English ; after
the loss of Candia, Venice became an Adriatic instead of a Mediter-
ranean power ; injury inflicted by the Barbary corsairs ; efforts of Louis
XIV. to become master of the Mediterranean ; the Dutch and English
fleets in that sea ; significance of the capture of Gibraltar by the Eng-
lish (1704); the English became the preponderating naval power in the
Mediterranean by the cession of Gibraltar and Minorca (17 13).
The Turkish power after the Treaty of Carlowitz (1699).
The reign of Mustapha II. (1695-1703): his military disasters com-
pensated by his naval successes over the Venetians ; while surrender-
ing the Adriatic and the Morea to Venice, and Hungary, except the
Hanat, to the Emperor, the Turks retained the islands of the Archipe-
lago and the control over the Levant ; Hussain Kiuprili, Grand Vizier
(1697- 1 702); he endeavored to reorganize the Turkish army and navy;
he reduced Bussora, pacified North Africa and regulated Turkish au-
thority in Arabia ; the Turks begin to be influenced by European ideas
and to translate European books ; revolt of the Janissaries and over-
throw of Mustapha II. (1703).
74. Ii<^ly io ^7^5'
Early years of the reign of Ahmad III. (1703-30): he announced his
accession to the Christian powers ; Charles XII. of Sweden induced the
Sultan to attack Russia ; the Treaty of the Pruth (11 July, 171 1) ; the
government of the Danubian provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia ;
after 17 16 in Wallachia and 171 1 in Moldavia the Sultan appointed hos-
podars of these two provinces from Greek families instead of from the
national nobility.
Italy during the half century before the Treaties of Utrecht.
I. The Popes abandoned the territorial aggrandizement of the States
of the Church ; their attitude towards the Catholic powers, and partic-
ulary towards Austria, France and Spain ; loss of their political influ-
ence ; Clement IX. — Rospigligsi;:;^i667-7o ; his friendly relations with
France; Clement X. — ATtien— i6^-7^bueb.ec QJ^de a bishjOpric (1676);
Innocent XI. — Odescalchij^i076'-^^9Tms endeavors to reform abiisesJmS^
a hand on men t ofjie^otism ; his quajTcls with I^ouis XIV. ; Alexander
VIII.-
tude towards France; Clement XI.^^Alban!— 17^^^ ; hTs' a"ttitude on ^Ic^
the Spanish Succession ; forced to recognize the Archduke Charles ; ^
issue of the bull "Unigenitus" (1713) ; action of the Papacy during ]J2
this period towards the Jansenists, the Jesuits and the Quietists. ^~~
II. Kingdom of Naples : its welcome to the Archduke Charles (1707);
his promise to observe its local rights ; separated from Sicily by the
Treaties of Utrecht (1713) and given to the House of Austria.
III. Kingdom of Sicily : given to Victor Amadeus II., Duke of
Savoy, by the Treaties of Utrecht ; the character of Victor Amadeus_
II. ; crowned at Palermo (24 Dec, 1713) ; growth of the House of C^^
^^ ^a^^^y by his policy ; he acquired Alessandria, etc. (1703), Montferrat jj^
>Xi^,v^4C*fhd Casale (1707), and the restoration of Savoy and Nice (1713) ; mar- ^K
-j^ riage of his two daughters to two grandsons of Louis XIV., to the Duke ^a^.
"^ of Burgundy, father of Louis XV., and to Philip V. of Spain ; his inter- ^
nal policy ; his encouragement^p^ublic works ; his code of law^s ; his
quarrel with Pope Clement XL ; taxationof ecclesiastical property.*^
IV. The Northern Duchies: Cosmo III., Grand Duke of Tuscany
(1670-1723), last ruler but one of the House of Medici; his payment of
large sums to remain neutral during the War of the Spanish Succe.ssion;
-Ottoboni — 1689-91 ; madepeace with Louis ^TV. ; Innocent
-Pignatdli — i6Qr^^?7oot^is econcony anduprightnessjJhis^atljrA ^
•wards France ; Clement Xl.^^^^Xlban! — 1700=^ fms^attitude onj^
Spain afid Portugal to 1715, 75
bad management of his duchy and misery of his people; Francesco, Duke
of Parma, remained neutral during the War of the Spanish Succession,
but Rainaldo, Duke of Modena, took part in it and obtained the Duchy
of Mirandola from the Emperor ; the Duchy of Mantua divided ; Man-
tua given to Milan and Montferrat to Savoy in 1707 by the Emperor,
because Charles IV. — Gonzaga — supported Louis XIV. in the War of
the Spanish Succession, but a small district given to the Duke of Guas-
talla, who supported the Emperor ; Milan and Mantua granted to the
Emperor by the Treaties of Utrecht (1713).
V. Venice: successes obtained by Morosini in the war against the
Turks ; by the Treaty of Carlowitz the Republic obtained the Morea,
the Ionian Islands and Dalraatia, and became the preponderant power
on the coasts of the Adriatic ; close alliance formed between the Em-
peror and the Venetians.
VI. Genoa : its independence threatened by the Dukes of Savoy ;
conspiracy of Raphael della Torre (1672) ; bombarded by a French fleet
(1684) ; the Doge Imperiali at Versailles (Feb., 1685).
Switzerland : the Swiss Confederation ; the thirteen cantons ; the
central and the cantonal governments ; division into Catholic and Prot-
estant, and into oligarchic and democratic, cantons ; the Swiss mercen^i^^^^
ary soldiers; the independent republics of the GrisohsTGraubiinden)
and of Geneva. '-^^^" ^' ^- V-"^*—t -
Spain : the reign of Philip V ; his reception in Spain ; influenced by
Orsini or Des Ursins ; interference of Louis XIV. in the internal affairs
his wife Marie Gabrielle of Savoy, who was controlled by the Princess " JiS
of Spain ; administration of Amelot (1705-09), the French ambassador;
the War of the Spanish Succession in Spain ; Philip V. twice driven
from Madrid ; enthusiasm of the Spaniards for him and his queen ; by
the Treaties of Utrecht Spain lost her continental possessions as well as
Gibraltar and Minorca ; treatment of the Catalans ; the Catalans organ-
ized a republic ; gallant defence of Barcelona ; captured by Berwick
(12 Sept., 1 7 14) ; death of the queen (14 Feb., 17 14) ; influence and
character of Madame des Ursins (b. 1641, d. 1722).
v^Porl^al : the^eign of Pedro II. (168 5-1706) ; the signature of the
MethuenTreaty wilb England (27 Dec, 1703) ; its results ; part taken
by Portugal in the War of the Spanish Succession ; accession of John V,
(1706)
76 The Jesuits,
Authorities : For the Turks see the books cited for Lecture 13 ; for Italy, the
books cited for Lecture 14, with Michaud, Louis XIV. et Innocent XL, 4 vols.,
and Carutti, Storia del regno di Vittorio Amadeo IL; for Spain, Legrelle, Ban-
driUart, Stanhope, Parnell, Rambuteau and Berwick^ cited under Lectures 23 and
24, with Coxe, Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon, vols, i,
2; Correspondance de Louis XIV. avec M. Amelot, ed. Girardot ; Combes, La
Princesse des Ursins, the Princess des Ursins, Correspondance avec Madame de
Maintenon, and Lettres in^dites, ed. Geffroy; and the Mdmoires of Saint-Simon;
for Portugal, see Oliveira Martins, cited under Lecture 15.
LECTURE 28.
THE PAPACY IN THE 17TH CENTURY: THE JESUITS AND THE
JANSENISTS.
The spiritual power of the Papacy in the 17th century as opposed to
its political and territorial power. ^
Gradual decline in the spiritual power to be observed in the first half
of the 17th century, the Age of the Thirty Years' War, when political
considerations were becoming paramount over religious considerations ;
more rapid decline during the latter half of the century, when Catholic
monarchs, like Louis XIV., openly quarrelled with the Pope, and tried
to check his spiritual authority.
The effect of the Counter- Reformation on the position of the Papacy:
its chief agents the Jesuits ; with the decline of the Jesuits from their
original energy the Counter-Reformation died away.
The main lines of the work of the Jesuits :
i. Education : success of their method of teaching ; their col-
leges and universities ; they controlled higher education in
Catholic countries.
ii. The Confessional : they become the confessors of kings and
statesmen ; Pere La Chaise, Pere Letellier and P^re Nithard.
iiu Missions. A. Among the Protestants : their work in Eng-
land, Sweden and Poland. B. Among the heathen : in
Asia, in India and China ; in America, in Canada and Para-
guay.
Jesuits atid Jansenists. 77
The decline in Jesuit energy after the death of General Acquaviva
(1615J: the generalship of Muzio Vitelleschi (1615-45); ** professed"
members began to accept offices of power ; education ceased to be gen-
erally free ; devotion to the prosperit^f the Society took the place of
devotion to the Papacy ; limitation of the general's power (1661);
the Society interested in commerce ; its commercial center at Lisbon_:
the Society supported absolutism against the Papacy ; it supported g^M*
Louis XIV. against Innocent XL: opposed by the Jansenist influ-a_:t.
^"•^ence; Pere La Chaise and Archbishop Harlay of Paris; Innocent^
T^y^ XI. and Alexander VIII. endeavored to check the power of the Society
and went so far as to forbid its admitting novices : Clement XI. con-
demned its practices in foreign missions in Asia (17 15). ^^^ _
The Jesuit theology : the adoption of ' ' free will ' ' doctrines
mlnicans quarrel with them for differing from St. Thomas Aquinas ;
growth of casuistry ; its application to politics and the result ; to
private life 7 the^^^//^'^5' Provinciales of Pascal (b. 1623, d. 1662)
overthrew the belief in scholastic morality ; the theological dis-
tinction between the Jesuits and-the Jansenists ; Pere Letellier and
■Archbishop Noailles of Paris ; after the issue of the bull Ujiigeiiitus
the Jesuits rallied to the Papacy and became Ultramontane.
The Jansenists : their doctrines a reaction against the theology of the
Jesuits ; their nickname of Catholic Puritans ; the Augustinus of Cor-
nelius Jansen, Bishop of Ypres, published in 1640, after his death ; its
theological views ; the doctrines of grace, sin and forgiveness ; its
rapid success, even among priests and bishops, but still more among
the educated laity of France and the Catholic Netherlands; Duvergier,
Ahbp de 5>aint-Oyrjin ; his appliqatjon of JapsenJst. yjews to life; his^.^
influence on At^g^lique Arnaul(^TCl 15917a. 1651); rorr Royal ; Ws
imprisonment by Richelieu (1638-42); the Jansenists implicated in the
Fronde ; their quarrel with the Jesuits ; Port Royal the home of moral
and intellectual France ; the influence exerted by Amauld (b. 161 2, d.
1694), Nicole, Lemaitre de Sacy, Pascal and Racine ; the publication of-*^
the Port Royal educational works ; influence oossessed bv the Jansen- *^
ists in France. ^
First struggle with the Papacy (1642-69): Urban VIII. condemned
Jansen's Augustinus (1642); the "five propositions" declared heret-
78 The Jansenists.
ical by the bull hi Occasione, issued by Innocent X. (31 May, 1653); Ar-
nauld denied that the ' ' five propositions' ' were contained in the book by
Jansen ; Alexander VII. declared that they were ; the Jansenist writers
denied the infallibility of the Pope in dealing with matters of fact; Louis
XIV. imprisoned De Sacy and persecuted the Jansenists, including the
nuns of Port Royal ; Clement IX. made the " Peace of Clement IX."
(1668), when the Jansenists agreed to condemn the " five propositions "
without acknowledging whether they were contained in Jansen's book
or not.
In spite of the King's dislike of them, the Jansenists became more
powerful in France, especially in bourgeois and legal circles.
Second struggle with the Papacy (1702-15): the Rifiexions morales
of Quesnel and the Cas de consciejice ; Archbishop Noailles manifested
moderate Jansenist opinions ; he distinguished between human and di-
vine faith in the Pope's infallibility on questions of fact ; opposition of
Pere Letellier, the King's confessor, and the Jesuits ; they appealed to
Rome ; Clement XI. tried to settle the question by the bull Vineain
Domini (15 July, 1705); the nuns of Port Royal refused to accept the
bull ; the community suppresse^rtT? July7i709; and Port Royal or-
dered to be destroyed (22 Jan., 17 10); persecution of the Jansenists ;
use of lettres de cachet ; loi propositions from Quesnel's book condemned
by the bull Unigenitus (8 Sept., 17 13); the Parlement of Paris, led by
D' Aguesseau, declined to register the bull as law without modifications ;
Noailles and fifteen bishops refused to accept it ; a council summoned.
to depose them ; they^ were saved by the death of Louis XIV-^vi^^UJiA^
uietists : Molinos and his doctrines ; condemned b5'nf*ope1Kno- '^^'-^'^^^
cent XI. (1687) >* Madame Guyon ; her mysticism ; her relations with
Fenelon ; controversy^ between Bossuet and Fenelon ; Innocent XII.
condemned Fenelon's Explications des Maximes des Saints (1699) J
lyouis XIV. and his attitude towards the Quietists.
Marie Alacoque (b. 1647, ^- 1690) and the worship of the Sacred
Heart ; the Abbe de Ranee (b. 1626, d. 1700) and the monastery *of La
Trappe.
Authorities : For an account in English of the Jansenist movement see Beard,
Port Royal, 2 vols. Among secondary authorities consult CrHineati-Joly\
Histoire religieuse, politique et littdraire de la compagnie de Jesus, 6 vols.; Rapin,
Madafuc de Maintenon. 79
Histoire du Jansdnisme; Sainte-Beuve, Port Royal, 7 vols.; Reuchlin, Geschichte
von Port Royal, 2 vols.; SoyreSy The Provincial L/Ctters of Pascal; Victor Cousin^
Jacqueline Pascal ; Lajitau, Histoire de la Constitution Uuigenitus; Le Roy. Le Gal-
licanisme au XVIII* sidcle ; la France et Rome de 1700 d 1715 ; histoire diploma-
tique de la bulle Unigenitus jusqu'a la mort de Louis XIV.; Bigelow, Molinos the
Quietist; Guerrier, Madame Guyon, sa vie, sa doctrine et son mfluence; Matter^
Le mysticisme en France au temps de Feuelon; Bausset, Histoire de Bossuet, 4
vols., and Histoire de Fenelon, 4 vols.; Rdaume, Histoire de Bossuet, 3 vols.;
Fhl'lipeaux, Relation de I'origine, du progres et de la coudamnation du Quidtisme;
Dubois, Histoire de I'abbd de Rauc^, with the works of Arnauid^ Fascai, lUadatne
Guyon, Bossuet and Fenelon.
LECTURE 29.
THE LAST YEARS OF THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV.
The government of France during the last thirty years of the reign of
Louis XIV. influenced by Madame de Maintenon^ but carried on by the
King in spite of his decreasing powers and increasing belief in himself;
he devoted himself more and more to foreign politics and the question
of the Spanish Succession, leaving internal administration to his minis-
ters, who inherited the offices of Colbert and Louvois without their
ability. '
The change in the King's character between the Treaties of Nimeguen
and the outbreak of war with the League of Augsburg : Louis XIV.
becomes moral and religious ; the gaiety of the Court disappears ; it
becomes more ceremonious ; the King governed by Madame de Main-
tenon and his confessors ; the great result of this change of character,
^he Revocation of the Edict-of Nantes (1685).
Character and position of Fran^oise d'Aubigne, Madame de Main-
tenon (b. 1635, d. 17 19): her previous career; her rivalry with Madame
de Montespan; reconciled the king and queen together; after the death
of the queen (1683), secretly married to Louis XIV.; nature of her
influence at court ; her ardent zeal for the Catholic religion and
prudery; her difficult position ; her foundation of Saint Cyr.
8o Last Years of Louis XIV.
Character and influence of Pere La Chaise, confessor of Louis XIV.
(1675-1709), and of his successor, Pere Letellier (1709-15); they
directed the ecclesiastical policy of the king in favor of the Jesuits; the
persecution of the Huguenots and the Jansenists.
The ministers of the last years of Louis XIV. : their inability to con-
trol or oppose the King; they acted as head clerks and feared responsi-
bility; the typical minister, Michel de Chamillart; the last ministers;
Boucherat (1685-99), Louis Phelypeaux, Comte de Pont^chartram
(1699-1714) and Daniel Voysin (1714-15), Chancellors; Torcy (1696-
1715), foreign affairs; Le Peletier (1684-89), Louis, Comte de Pontchar-
train (1689-99), Chamillart (1699- 1708) and Desmarets (1708-15),
finances; Barbezieux (1691-1701), Chamillart (1701-1709) and Daniel
Voysin (1709-14), war; Louis, Comte de Pontchartrain (1690-93), and
Jerome, Comte de Pontchartrain (1693-17 15), marine.
The French nation approved the successful war of 1688-97 against
) the League of Augsburg, but welcomed the Treaties of Ryswick; gen-
eral delight at the acceptance of the Spanish Succession for the Duke
of Anjou; " the Pyrenees have ceased to exist"; confidence felt by the
people in the success of Louis XIV.
Surprise felt at the defeats of Blenheim and Ramillies; general dis-
sJJL content at^ the mismanageaient_of Chamillart; his financial methods,
,.jjJ*^\)i\^ creation and sale of sinecure ofiBces; Chamillart made the scapegoat
>^^^ and succeeded by Desmarets, the nephew of Colbert (1708); improve-
ment of credit; the loans of Desmarets; the armies thus raised defeated;
despair of the French people after the defeat of Oudenarde^ ( - ^ '--^ inrw^i j
The terrible winter of 1708-1709: general misery of the people; the
loss of Lille left the way open to Paris ; the appeal of Louis XIV. to
his people, on the advice of Torcy; France rallied round the King ; vol-
untary gifts to the royal treasury; melting down of the royal plate;
ladies contributed their jewelry; result of the wave of enthusiasm, to
make Louis XIV. persist in his resistance ; effect of the battle of Mal-
plaquet ; the rising of Spain and the accession of the Tory Ministry in
England enabled Louis XIV. to get much better terms at Utrecht and
Rastadt than had ever been expected by him ; his position at the close
of the war ; France retained most of the towns in Europe which had
been gained at Ryswick, and only lost Acadia in North America.
Last Years of Louis XIV. 8l
Religious persecution increased in France during the War of the
Spanish Succession : the suppression of the Camisards in the Cevennes
( 1 703-1 705); Letellier increased the King's ardor against the Jan-
senists; destruction of Port Royal (17 10); Louis XIV. 's indignation at
the opposition made^xthe Parlement of Paris, led by D'Aguesseau, to
registering the bull Unigenitus ; his intention of deposing the bishops
who favored Jansenism ; influence of Letellier.
Last year of Louis XIV. 's foreign policy : his intrigues with the
English Jacobites to secure the accession of the Catholic ' ' Old Pre-
tender " in. England ; a fleet prepared for the support of the Pretender.
Bad effect of the financial maladministration: decline of agricultural,
industrial and commercial prosperity; Vauban's Dzjne Roy ale published
(1707).
Gloom of the Court during the last years of the life of Louis XIV. :
contrast with its opening years; death of the Dauphin, only son of
Louis XIV. (14 April, 1711); his education by Bossuet ; his three sons:
'T-'-fTfLouis, Duke of Burgundy, educated by F^nelon, died 18 Feb., 17 12,
g^ leavmg an only child, who succeeded as Louis XV.; (2) Philip^Duke
of Anjou, became King of Spain as Philip V. in 1700; (3) Charles,
Duke of Berry^died 4 May, 17 14; the illegitimate children of Louis
XIV.; his fondness for them ; rank and favors bestowed upon them.
Death of Louis XIV. (i Sept., 1715): effect of his reign on France
and Europe ; his personal character.
Louis XIV. andAgia : theFrench East India Company; foundation
of Pondicherry'^yr^T^j. '^aken by the Dutch (1693), but restored to
France (1698); embassy to Siam (1685).
Louis XIV. and America : the development of Canada ; the work of
the Jesuits ; the government of Frontenac (1672-82 and 1689-98); La
Salle's voyage down the Mississippi (1682); first French settlement
in Louisiana (1699). ^ 0
Authorities: Of the secondary antborities cited under Lecture 16, Vo/-
iaire, Baussei aud Martin ; of those cited under Lecture 17, Michel Bind Mellion;
of those cited under Lecture 19, Noailles 2in6. Geffroy; of those cited under Lecture
24, Moret and Krohn, are still useful ; and may be supplemented for the light
thrown on the character of Madame de Maiutenon by Th. Lavallee, Histoire de
la maison royale de Saint Cyr; by Provari, Vie du Dauphin, p^re de Louis XV.,
82 Literature in the lyth Century.
2 vols.; by Castonnet des Fosses, L'Inde frau^aise uvant Dupleix ; by Lanier,
ifetude historique sur les relations de la France et du royaume de Siam de 1662 ^
1703, and by Farkman, Count Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV., The
Jesuits in America in the 17th century, and La Salle and the Discovery of the Great
West. For the administration of Louis XIV. see Dareste, Lugay, Nervo and
Clamageran, cited under Lecture 8, and Clement, Histoire du systeme protecteur
en France depuis le ministere de Colbert ; Reuss, L' Alsace au XVIIieme siecle ;
Thomas, Une province sous Louis XIV., situation politique et administrative de la
Bourgogne de 1661 a 1715 ; Monin, Essai sur I'histoire administrative du Langue-
doc pendant I'intendance de Basville (1685-1719); Marchand, Un intendant sous
Louis XIV., etude sur 1' administration de Lebret en Provence (1687-1704), and
Arbois de Jubainville, L'administration des intendants d'apres les archives de 1*
Aube. Among primary authorities on administration and finance Depping,
Boislisle and Foucault, cited under Lecture 16, should be supplemented by Es-
nault, Michel Chamillart, correspondance et papiers in^dits ; by Desmarets,
Memoire sur l'administration des finances depuis le 20 fevrier 1708 jusqu'au i sep-
tembre 1715, and by Vauban, Projet d'une Dime royale ; while for the Court of
Louis XIV. and his personality during the latter years of his reign to the Corre-
spondance of Madame de Maintenon, the Letters of the Diichesse d'Orlians and
the Memoires of Madame de Caylus, Choisy and Torcy, cited under Lecture 19,
must be added the Duchesse de Bourgogne, Lettres et correspondance, ed. Gag-
ni^re; Anthoine, La mort de Louis XIV., journal des Anthoine, ed. Drumo7it;
the Journal of Dangeau, vols. 7-15 ; the :^crits inddits, ed. Fraug^re, 6 vols, and,
above all, the Memoires of the Due de Saint-Simon ed. CMruel, 21 vols ; the
famous work of Saint-Simon, however, must be read with Cf uticn and on this sub-
ject reference may be made to Chh'uel, Saint-Simon considere comme historien de
Louis XIV., and to Baschet^ Le Due de Saint-Simon, son cabiucit et Vhistorique de
ses manuscrits.
LECTURE 30. ^'
/
LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY IN THE 17TH CENTURY.
Importance of the 17th century literature : the literary languages of
Europe created ; development from the study of the classics, which
characterized the Renaissance, into the use of vernaculars ; effect of this
literary movement on the growth of nationalities ; the study of the
Literature iH the xyth Century. 83
classics as models continued ; literature ceased to concern itself mainly
with religion and dealt with more sides of human interest.
Spain produced the first man of letters of genius of the 17th century:
the life, character and works of Cervantes (1547-16 16) ; Don Quixote
and its effects; the Spanish drama; Lope de Vega (1562-1635) and
Calderon (1600-87).
The Elizabethan period of English literature : Shakespeare (1564-
16 16) and his contemporaries and successors ; the English drama ; the
growth of English prose ; Bacon (i56i-i626)y^^vyjN> v>nfJ>VA
Development of French literature under Richelieu and Mazarin : the
Academic ^rangaise founded 1635 ; Malherbe (i 555-1628); La Roche-
foucauld (1630^) ; the application of literature to politics ; tTie ^az-
arinades; journalism ; the rise of the French drama ; Pierre Corneille
(1606-84).
The Age of Louis XIV : the classic or " golden " age of French lit-
erature ; literature owed to Louis XIV. patronage, but not inspiration ;
the greatest writers of the time were born and had begun to write before
Louis XIV. impressed his personality on France ; tragedy : Racijie
(1639-99); comedy: Moliere (1622-73) ; poetry : influence of classicism;
correctness took the place of inspiration ; Boileau (1636-17 11), the
critic, and his influence ; development of French prose : Pascal (1623-
62); the influence of Port Royal; La Fontaine (1621-95) and his Fables;
La Bruyere (1644-96) and his Characters ; ficjion ^^Idlle^e Scudery X»^
(1607-1701) ; Fenelon (1651-1715); Telimaque ; theology and history : ^^'^
Bossuet ( 1 627-1 704) ; the great French preachers, Bossuet, BourdalouVf^
(1632-1704) and Flechier (1632-1710) ; memoir- writers : Madame de^v--»-
Motteville (1621-89), Cardinal de Retz (1614-79) and Saint-Simon
(1675-1755) ; letter writers : Madame de Sevigne (1626-96).
. Growth of taste for literature in France : the Hotel de Rambouillet
'^ ^gl^nd the " grecieuses " ; their successors.
^'^T Tendency of later writers of the Age of Louis XIV. to fulsome adu-
A -^ lation of the king.
English literature of the Puritan period : Milton (1608-74).
Influence of the Age of Louis XIV. on the literature of other countries:
in Germany, French became the language of the courts and educated
people ; consequent sterility of German literature ; in Italy poetry on
84 ^^^ 2^ ih^ ^7^^^ Century,
classical lines was produced; Tassoni (1565-1655), Guidi (1650-1712),
and Filicaja ( 1 642-1 707); in Spain pedantry of criticism caused sterility;
in England the literature of the reign of Charles ll. stowed French in-
fluence ; Dryden (1631-1701) ; Congreve (1670-1729).
Relation of literature to philosophy in the 17th century.
Revolution effected in philosophical method by Bacon (i 561 -1626) ;
Descartes ( 1596-1650) destroyed the scholastic methods; the speculations
of Spinoza (1632-77) ; the theories of Leibnitz (1646-1716).
In political philosophy France produced no great thinkers : but
Hobbes (1588-1679) and Locke (1632- 1704) started the lines of thought
which were to lead to great results in the i8th century.
Grotius(i583-i646) and Puffendorf (1632-94) created and developed
international law.
Variety of the literary and philosophical movements of the 17th cen-
tury ; their diverse characteristics.
LECTURE 3L
ART AND SCIENCE IN THE 17TH CENTURY.
The revolution in thought and method effected by Bacon and Des-
cartes created amew era in science : experiments took the place of the-
ories ; andtneiTth century is marked by many important scientific
discoveries ; on the other hand art tended to lose its virility and, de-
spite two painters of genius, the art of the 17th century is governed by
classical conventions ; and is thus on an inferior level to its condition
during the Renaissance.
The Spanish school of painting : Velasquez (1599-1660); Murillo
(1617-82); the greatness of Velasquez. e.rv^f a o^^
The Flemish school of painting : Rubens (1577-1640); Van DyckJ^^
(1599-1641) ; Teniers the elder (1582-1649) ; Teniers the'"y^unger 5
(1610-85). V^tr.-\>^..S^."wvA^A^J>^^-
The Dutch school of painting : tHe isolated greatness of Rembrandt
Art in the lyth Century, 85
van Ryn_( 1 608-69); characteristics of the Dutch gchopl ; Frans ^als
(1584-1666); Gerard^u^w.i^^,i3-8o); Jan^te^( 1 626-79)^P3^ijP^
ter (1625-54); Ruys^^^eljj (1630-81); Cuyp (1066-62); W6uve?ma3
(1620-68); Van der Velde ([1633-1707).
The Italian school of painting : its decline from the great .days of>^^
Italian art into septim^ntaJ^sm^^^jGuM Reni (i 574-1642); ^ssoferrato
(1605-85); SalvaJinL-Rosa\i6i5-73)/
The French school of painting ; its conventionality ; Poussin (1593-
1672); Le Brun (1619-90); Claude Lorraine (1600-^.^^^^^,^ c 1^
The English school of painting : de^ted^to oortrai^; influence of
VanDyck; Lely (1618-80); Kneller(T648-i7S3)!: ""^ "
Architecture dominated by classic ideals and styles : their inappro-
priateness ; the forms patronized by Louis XIV. adopted in other
European countries. ^^ A^jt^*^-^'^ '*
The other arts : absence of great sculptors ; improvement in engrav-
ingj classical style of decoration.
VCommencement of classical gardening : the gardens of Vaux and
Versailles; Le N6tre (1613-1701). . ^ Ji> ...v.^«J^ ^^-^
"^usic in the 17th century : thedevelopment of Jheopera in Italy ;
jis popularity ; mdodycuffivatea as weUas harmony ; th^e Roman
school; Carissimi Ti '^82-1672); his church music ; introduction of the
orchestra into the churches ; his cantatas and songs; Scarlatti (1659-
1725), founder of the Neapolitan school ; his songs and operas ; Lully pc
-.^1633-87) developed the music written for masques ; he became the
chief musician to Louis XIV.; his operas, ballets ana musical come-
dies; his services to theatrical music ^ Fr^gc^ • ^^^ a^gpciation with -
Moliere and Quinault ; music mmglaiS^ ; Purcell (1058-95).
Bacon and Descartes, by overthrowing old methods of thinking and ^
arguing, prepare the way for experimental science : scientific experi-
ments become fashionable; foundation of the Royal Society (1662);
science not yet divided and differentiated ; attempts at universality of
scientific knowledge ; Leibnitz (1646-17 16).
The great mathematicians : Napier, the inventor of logarithms
(1550-1617); Descartes (1596-1650) and the application of numerical
exponents to geometry; Pascal (1623-62) and conic sections ; Newton
(1642-1727) and the infinitesimal calculus and mathematical optics;
i
86 Sciefice in the lyth Century.
\h!^ Principia : Bernouilli (i 654-1 705) and the application of the cal-
culus.
The great biologists: Harvey and the demonstration of the circulation
of the blood (1578-1657); Sydenham (1624-89); Boerhaave (1668-1738)!^^
The great astronomers : Galileo (1564-1642) and the demonstration wu-»
that the earth moves round the sun ; Kepler (1571-1631) and the laws
of planetary motion ; Cassini (1625-17 12) and the measurement of the
earth; Huyghens (1629-95) ^^^ the discovery of the satellites of
Saturn ; Newton (1642-1727) and the lunar theory ; Gregory (1633-75)
and the invention of the reflecting telescope; Halley (1656-1742) and
eclipses.
The great physicists : GaUl^o (1564-1642) the inventor of the ther-l ^^
mometer and the pendulum ; Toriicelli (1608-47) the inventor of the ba-l
rometer ; Descartes and the law of refraction ; his theory of ** whorls";
Boyle (1626-91) and the air pump; Huyghens and the pendulum clock ;
Newton and the theory of gravitation.
These names and discoveries only indicate the progress and first
gains of experimental science; the 17th century was in this respect
also the commencement of riodern history.
Effect on the material conditions of life of the discoveries of men of
science ; contrast between the intellectual and material conditions of
life at the beginning and the end of the 17th century.
\£^
I.ECTURE 32.
, THE REGENCY OF ORLEANS, AND THE SCHEMES OF ALBERONI.
A
Condition of France at the death of Louis XIV. (i September, 17 15);
accession of his great-grandson as Louis XV. (b. 15 Feb., 1710).
The Parlement of Paris revoked the will of Louis XIV., and the
Duke of Orleans (b. 1674) became Regent of France with full powers
(2 Sept., 17 15); revocation of the precedence granted to the illegitimate
children of Louis XIV. (26 Aug., 1718).
Alberoni, 87
The character of the Regent : his attitude towards politics ; his agent
and minister, the Abbe Dubois, (b. 1656); the character of Dubois.
The loieigu policy of the Regent : the schemes of Alberoni caused
the Regent and Dubois to enter into a close alliance with England
(1716) ; influence of the English ambassador, Stair.
The condition of Spain in 1715 : marriage of Philip V. to Elizabeth
Farnese, of Parma (b. 1692, d. 1766) ; her character and ambition;
dismissal of Madame des Ursins (25 Dec, 1714) ; Alberoni by his. influ-
ence over the queen became the director of Spanish policy ; character
and ideas of Cardinal Alberoni (b. 1664, d. 1752) ; his administration;
Philip V. hoped to enforce his claim to the throne of France in case of
the death of Louis XV. ; the queen aimed at obtaining Parma and Tus-
cany for her children.
The attitude of England : the accession of George I. placed the Whigs
firmly in power ; Stanhope, a friend of the Emperor, became the direc-
tor of English foreign policy; the principal objects of English policy,
the maintenance of the Treaties of Utrecht, and the exclusion of the
Stuarts from the English throne; failure of the Jacobite rising of 1715
in Scotland and the north of England.
The alliance formed between England and France joined by the
United Provinces and became the Triple Alliance ; the execution of
the Treaties of Utrecht guaranteed b)^ the allies (4 Jan., 1717).
Causes of the renewal of war between Spain and the Emperor
Charles VI.; the Spaniards conquered Sardinia (Aug., 17 17) and at-
tacked Sicily (July, 171 8).
The Emperor joined the Triple Alliance, which thus became the
Quadruple Alliance (2 Aug., 17 18).
The Spanish War : Byng destroyed the Spanish fleet off" Cape Pas-
saro (\\ Aug., 17 18); a French army under Berwick invaded Spain
(April, 1719).
The plots of Alberoni : he endeavored to induce Sweden and Russia
to support the Jacobites ; he prepared a fleet for the Old Pretender ; he
conspired with the illegitimate children of Louis XIV. for the over-
throw of the regency of Orleans \ discovery ef the conspiracy of Cel-
lamare (8 Dec, 17 18).
All the plots of Alberoni foiled ; exiled from Spain (5 Dec, 1719).
88 The Regeyit Orleans.
Peace signed between Spain and the Quadruple Alliance (i Feb.,
1720): the Emperor Charles VI., obtained Sicily ; Victor Amadeus II.
of Savoy received Sardinia in compensation for the loss of Sicily ; the
succession to Parma and Tuscany guaranteed to the children of Philip
V. by his second marriage ; Saint-Simon's embassy to Spain ; arrange-
ments made for the marriage of Louis XV. to a Spanish infanta and
of the two elder sons of the King of Spain to two daughters of the Re-
gent Orleans.
The internal history of France during the regency of Orleans : ces-
sation of the persecution of the Jansenists ; exile of Pere Letellier ;
John Law (b. 1671, d. 1729) and his financial schemes ; the mania for
speculation in France ; the Mississippi Company ; ruinous results of
Law's administration ; dismissal of Law (1720); Dubois made a cardi-
nal (1721).
Louis XV. declared of age (19 Feb., 1723); death of Dubois (10
Aug., 1723) and of the Regent Orleans (7 Dec, 1723).
Authorities : Among books in English on this period see Moore, Lives of Al-
beroni, Ripperda and Pombal ; Perkins, France under the Regency, and Arm-
strongs Elizabeth Farnese, the "Termagant of Spain". Among secondary
authorities may be noted Cojxre, Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House
of Bourbon, vol. ii.; BeCourcy, L'Espagne apres la paix d'Utrecht (1713-1715) ;
Combes, La princesse des Urs-ins ; Seilhac, L'abbe Dubois; Wiesener, Le Regent,
I'abb^ Dubois et les Anglais; Chdteauneuf, Histoire du regent, Philippe d'Or-
l^ans ; Thiers, Histoire de Law, translated by F. Fiske, as The Mississippi Bubble ;
Horn, Jean Law; Cochut, Law, son systeme et son ^poque; Vuitry, Le desordre des
finances et les exces de la speculation a la fin du regne de Louis XIV. et au com-
mencement du regne de Louis XV.; Sichi, Les derniers jansenistes, vol. i.; Rous-
set de Missy, Histoire du Cardinal Alberoni jusqu' a 1719 ; Vaiouf, La conspiration
de Cellamare ; Lemontey, Histoire de la Rdgence, et de la minorite de Louis XV.,
and O. Weber, Die Quadrupel-AUi^nz vom Jahre 1718. For the part played by
England see Stanhope, History of E"glan<l, vol. i.; Lecky, History of England in
the Eighteenth Century, vol. i. The primary authorities for the History of
Spain include Princess des Ursins, Lettres in^dites, ed. Geffroy, and Correspond-
ance avec Madame de Maintenon; the Apologia dell' operazione del Card. AlHeroni
durante il suo ministerio, and Alberoni, Lettres intimes adressees au comte Rocca,
e^.Bourgeois; Baudrillart, PhilippeV. d'Espagne et la cour de France, vol. ii. ;^Sii«^
Simon, Lettres et depeches sur I'ambassade d'Espagne, ed. Drumont. For the his-
tory of the Regency in France see Dubois _ Memoires secretes et correspondance m6-
dite, ed. Sevelinges, and (he Memoires of Saint Simon, Villars, Noailles, Madame
Death of Charles XII. 89
de Staal-Delaunay, Dudos and Mathieu MaraU, the Journal o{ Dangeau^ vols, xvi.-
xviii., and Ruvat, Journal de la R^gence (1715-23), ed. Campardon. Many docu-
ments of importance are contained in Lamberty, M^moires pour servir k rhistoire
du XVlIJi^me siecle, vols, viii-xii.
LECTURE 33.
THE END OF THE NORTHERN WAR.
The military situation in Northern Europe at the time when Charles
XII. of Sweden suddenly arrived in Stralsund from Adrianople (,22
Nov., 1 7 15): occupation of Pomerania by the Danes, Saxons, Russians
and Prussians (17 16).
Charles XII. appointed Gortz his chief minister ; the schemes of
Gortz ; his relations with Alberoni ; Gortz endeavored to make peace
between Sweden and Russia ; Peter. the Great not unwilling so long as
the Baltic provinces which he had conquered were guaranteed to him.
CEarles XII. invaded Norway (17 16); George I. of England, who
had purchased Bremen and Verden from the Danes, was determined to
support Denmark ; second invasion of Norway by the Swedes (1718);
Charles XII. killed at Frederikshall (11 Dec, 1718).
Revolution in Sweden : Ulrica Eleanor, younger sister of Charles
XII., declared Queen, the Duke of Holstein, son of his elder sister,
being passed over ; the monarchy of Sweden made elective ; all power
granted to an oligarchy of nobles ; execution of Gortz (13 March, 17 19).
The Swedish Government resolved to make peace : George I. con-
firmed in the possession of Bremen and Verden (20 Nov., 17 19) ; treaty
signed with Augustus I. of Poland; by treaty with Prussia (21 Jan.,
1720), Frederick William I. of Prussia, obtained the district of Pomer-
ania between the Oder and the Peene, including Stetthij with the
islands of Usedom and Wollin ; by treaty with Denmark (9 June, 1720),
Sweden recovered the rest of Western Pomerania and the island of
Riigen, but confirmed the cession of Schleswig to Denmark ; by the
Treaty of Nystadt with Russia (10 Sept., 1721 j, Sweden surrendered the
90 Death of Peter the Great.
provinces bordering on the Gulf of Finland to Russia, but recovered
the rest of Finland.
These treaties, which concluded the Northern War, reduced Sweden
to the rank of a second-rate power, and marked the advance of Russia
and Prussia towards the supremacy of the Baltic.
Condition of Poland during the reign of Augustus I. of Saxony (17 lo-
34) ; renewal of his scheme to obtain the hereditary throne of Poland,
guaranteed by the neighboring powers, at the price of ceding Royal or
Polish Prussia to the King of Prussia, eastern I^ithuania to Russia and
Zips to the Kmperor.
Condition of Denmark under Frederick IV. (1699-1730) : development
of Danish trade ; good administration ; encouragement of education ;
exploration of Greenland ; the Moravian missions.
The last years of the reign of Peter the Great : his visit to Paris
(1717) ; execution of his only son and heir- apparent, Alexis, (7 July,
1718J; I?eter's ukase giving the reigning sovereign the right to nominate
his successor (1722); the development of the European policy of Peter;
the title of Tsar translated as Emperor of All the Russias (1721);
difficulties met with in establishing a Western system of administration
in Russia; the " Old Russian " party; Peter the Great's Asiatic policy;
his war with Persia ; he lays down the lines of future Russian develop-
ment; coronation of Catherine as Tsaritsa (18 May 1724).
Death of Peter the Great (8 Feb., 1725) ; his character and greatness.
Reign of Catherine I. ; influence of Menshikov; importance of Oster-
mann; establishment of the Supreme Privy Council; treaty with the
Emperor (6 Aug., 1726); foundation of the Academy of Sciences (1726);
explorations of Bering (b. 1680, d. 1741); death of Catherine I. (17
May, 1727).
Reign of Peter II. (b. 17 15), son of Alexis ; exile of Menshikov (3
Oct., 1727); influence of the Dolgoruki family; death of Peter II. ("30
Jan., 1730).
Anne, Duchess of Courland (b. 1693), younger daughter of Ivan
V. and niece of Peter the Great, declared Tsaritsa.
Authorities : See books mentioned under Lectures 21 and 22, with Allen, His-
toire de Danemark; Baitiy The Pupils of Peter the Great; Vogue, Le fils de Pierre
le Grand; Herrmann, Peter der Grosse und der Za-evitsch Alexei, and Pierre Dol-
goroukoWy Memoires.
Charles VI. and the Turks.
LECTURE 34. 11^-^;— V^
THE POLICY OF THE EMPEROR CHARLES VI.
Charles VI. refused to recognize Philip V. as King of Spain until
after the successful war waged by the Quadruple Alliance ; improve-
ment made in the Austrian position in Italy by the exchange of
Sardinia for Sicily.
The Emperor and the Turks : improvement in the position of the
Turks since the Treaty of Carlowitz (1699) ; they recovered Azov from
the Russians by the Treaty of the Pruth (lyri) ; under the influence
of the Grand Vizier, Damad Ali Kumurdji, the Sultan, Ahmad III.,
declared war upon the Republic of Venice (9 Dec, 17 14) ; the Vizier
conquered the Morea (17 15), and laid siege to Corfu ; heroic defence of
Corfu (1716); the Venetians appealed to the Emperor for help ; Charles
VI. declared war against the Turks.
The campaigns of Prince Eugene : he defeated the Turks at Peter-
wardein (5 Aug., 17 16), and took Temesvar ; he besieged Belgrade, and
won his greatest victory over the Turks there (16 Aug., 1717) ; sur-
render of Belgrade to the Austrians.
Peace made between the Emperor and the Turks at Passarowitz, (21
July, 1718) ; by this treaty Austria received the Banat of Temesvar,
completing its possession of Hungary, and the city of Belgrade ; the
Venetians abandoned the Morea to the Turks, but were confirmed in
their possession of Corfu, and received certain districts in Albania and
Dalmatia ; importance of the treaty of Passarowitz ; it marked the
further decline of the Turkish power in Europe.
The attitude of Charles VI. towards Spain; the Congress of Cambrai
(1724)-
The Emperor and the Pragmatic Sanction : the terms of this decree
I which was propounded by Charles VI. in 1713 ; (i) the dominions of
^ the House of Hapsburg declared indivisible ; (2) male heirs to succeed
'\ by primogeniture ; (3) in default of male heirs the succession to devolve
upon the female heirs, first of Charles VI., then of Joseph I., and
\finally of Leopold I.
92 The Pragmatic Sanctio7i.
As the Emperor had only daughters, he endeavored to obtain an oath
of adhesion to the Pragmatic Sanction from the different states forming
the Austrian dominions, and a guarantee from the powers of Europe.
The different provinces of the House of Hapsburg assented to the
Pragmatic Sanction, and it was solemnly promulgated (6 Dec, 1724).
The desire for a universal guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanction, the
keynote of the foreign policy of Charles VI.
The question of the Ostend Company, founded by the Emperor in
order to obtain a share of the Asiatic trade (19 Dec, 1722); the English
and the Dutch opposed the new Company ; the Emperor Charles was
thus alienated from his former allies, and a negotiation was entered into
with Spain.
The policy of Spain after the dismissal of Alberoni : the abdication
of Philip V. (Jan., 1724); death of Louis I. (31 Aug., 1724); return to
the throne of Philip V. ; the Spanish infanta betrothed to Louis XV,
sent back to Spain (Feb., 1725); the schemes of Rigg^a (b. 1680, d.
1737): an alliance signed between Charles VI. and Philip V. at Vienna
(30 April, 1725); Charles VI. renounced his claims to Spain, promised
to secure the succession to Parma and Tuscany to Don Carlos, son of
Philip V. and Elizabeth Farnese, and agreed to aid Spain to recover
Gibraltar and Minorca ; Philip V. guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction,
renounced all claims to Naples, Sicily, the Milanese and the Catholic
Netherlands, and threw open all Spanish ports to the Ostend Company.
Formation of the League of Hanover (23 Sept., 1725), in opposition
to the Austro- Spanish Alliance : France and England joined by the
Dutch, Denmark and Sweden.
Catherine I. of Russia guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction and joined
the Austro-Spanish Alliance (6 Aug., 1726), and her example was fol-
lowed by King Frederick William I. of Prussia (12 Oct., 1726).
Dismissal of Ripperda (17 May, 1726); attack of the Spaniards on
Gibraltar.
Change of power in France : the Due de Bourbon chief minister
(1723-26); influence of Madame de Prie ; marriage of Louis XV. to
Marie Leczinska, daughter of Stanislas, ex-King of Poland (4 Sept.,
1725); Cardinal Fleury appointed chief minister (11 June, 1726).
A general European war averted by the peace policy of the English
The Emperor Charles VI. 93
and French ministers, Walpole (b. 1676, d. 1745) and FIeury(b. 1653,
d. 1743). >v-..,oiiX 4 ^..cxJj^
Authorities : Among small books in English upon the reign of Charles
VI. may be noted /,£g;^ Autriche-Hongrie, translated by Mrs. Birkbeck Hill, and
for the war with the Turks, Creasy, History of the Ottoman Turks. Ihe chief
secondary authorities on Xustrian history of this time are Krones, Hand-
buch der Geschichte CBsterreichs ; Arneth, Karl VI. (in Allgemeiue Deutsche Bio-
graphie, vol. xv.); Hq/ler, Fragmente zur Geschichte Kaiser Karls VI. (Srtzungs-
berichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, vol. Ix., Vienna, 1868);
Beer, Zur Geschichte der Politik Karls VI. (Historische Zeitschrift, 1862);
Ameth, Prinz Eugen, vols, ii, iii ; A. Wolf, Geschichte der pragmatischen Sam -
tion ; Forster, Die Hofe und Kabineue Europas im Achtzehnten Jahrhundert ;
Vehse, Memoirs of the Court of Austria, translated by Demmler ; VanRiiikel-
ingen, Geschiedenis der oosterryksche Nederlanden ; Belgien onder Karel VI.
(1700-1740), axidi Bidemtann, Geschichte der (Esterreichischen Gesammtstaatsidee.
The secondary authorities for Turkish history are Hammer, Histoire de I'em-
pire ottoman, and Zi7ikeise7i, Geschichte des osmanischen Reichs in Europa. For
the policy of Spain see Coxe, Moore and Armstrong, cited under Lecture 32, with
Syveton^ Le Baron de Ripperda ; Baudrillart, Philippe V. et la cour de France,
vol. iii.; Ripperda, Memoirs, and Montgon, M^moires ; and for England Sta?ihope
and Lecky, cited under Lecture 32, with Coxe, Memoirs of Sir Robert Walpole.
On the marriage of Louis XV. see Raynal, Le manage d'un Roi. As primary
authorities for the Turkish war reference should be made to Ameth, Relationen
der Botschaften Venedigs iiber CE)sterreich im iS**" Jahrhundert (in the Fontes
rerum Austriacarum, vol. xxii.), and Matuschka, Feldzuge des Prinzen Eugens, and
for diplomatic historv to Lettres ec Mdmoires cnire ic> nuuistres des cours de la
Grande-Bretagne, de France, et d'Hcp^gne (1727), and the texts of the treaties.
LECTURE 35.
THE WAR OF THE POLISH SUCCESSION.
Charles VI. abandoned Spain and made peace with the allies of the
League of Hanover C31 May, 1727), suspending the Ostend Company
and referring other disputed questions to a Congress of the Powers.
Spain abandoned the siege of Gibraltar and made peace with Eng-
94 Fleury and Walpole.
land (5 March, 1728); meeting of the Congress of Soissons; by the
Treaty of Seville (9 Nov., 1729) Spain made an oJBfensive and defensive
alliance with England, France and the Dutch, who guarantee the suc-
cession of Don Carlos to Parma and Tuscany.
The Treaty of Seville accepted by the Emperor after the death of the
last Farnese Duke of Parma (16 March, 1731); England and the Dutch
guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction; Charles VI. dissolved the Ostend
Company; Don Carlos took possession of Parma.
The Emperor Charles VI. submitted the Pragmatic Sanction to the
Diet of the Empire (Jan., 1732); accepted by the ecclesiastical Electors
and the Electors of Brandenburg and Hanover, but rejected by the
Elector Palatine and the Electors of Saxony and Bavaria.
The internal government of Charles VI.: influence exercised by
Prince Eugene up to his death in 1736; his chief ministers, Sinzen-
dorff, State Chancellor (1705-42), and Gundacker Thomas Starhemberg,
in charge of the finances (1703-45).
The peace policy of Cardinal Fleury; his endeavors to improve the
finances of France; Orry, Controller- General of the Finances (1730-45);
Chauvelin, Minister of Foreign Affairs (1727-37); renewal of the attack
on the Jansenists, which involved Fleury in conflicts with the Parle-
ment of Paris (1729, 1731-32).
The peace policy of Sir Robert Walpole, who had become Prime Min-
ister of England in 172 1; his foreign policy governed by commercial
considerations; his power increased by the death of George I. (1727).
In spite of the peaceful tendencies of Walpole and Fleury, the death
of Augustus I., King of Poland and Elector of Saxony (i Feb., 1733),
caused a general war.
The two chief candidates for the Polish throne were Augustus, Elec-
tor of Saxony, son of the late king, and Stanislas I^eczinski, who had
been king from 1704 to 1709 and was father-in-law of Louis XV. of
France.
Stanislas was elected king (11 Sept., 1733) and was supported by a
small body of French troops ; an opposition diet elected Augustus II.
(24 Sept., 1733) ', the Emperor Charles VI. recognized Augustus in
return for a guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanction, and the Tsaritsa
Anne of Russia sent troops to his assistance.
War of the Polish Succession. 95
The Russians under Miinnich took Dantzig (9 July, 1734), the last
refuge of Stanislas, who escaped to France ; Biren made Duke of Cour-
land(i737).
Fleury resolved to attack the Emperor on the pretext that Charles
VI. had shown himself hostile to Stanislas, and formed the League of
Turin with Spain and Sardinia for the expulsion of the Austrians from
Italy (26 Sept., 1733) ; by the secret treaty of the Escurial (7 Nov.,
1733) a close alliance was formed between France and Spain ; his main
intention in entering upon war was to acquire Lorraine for France, an
intention quickened by the betrothal of Francis, Duke of Lorraine, to
Maria Theresa, elder daughter of Charles VI.
The campaign of 1733 : the French, under Berwick, conquered Lor-
raine, and under Villars took Milan , Walpole refused to assist the Em-
peror; campaign of 1734 : the French took Philipsburg, where Berwick
was killed, and Don Carlos conquered Naples ; campaign of 1735 : Don
Carlos conquered Sicily ; little effected in Northern Italy and on the
Rhine ; first appearance of Russian troops in Western Europe, an army
being sent by the Tsaritsa Anne to the help of Charles VI.
Preliminaries of peace signed between France and Austria (3 Oct.,
1735) :
(i) Stanislas Leczinski renounced the throne of Poland to Augustus
of Saxony, and received the duchy of Lorraine, with the title of king.
(2) Francis, Duke of Lorraine, the future son-in-law of the Emperor,
guaranteed Tuscany on the death of the last of the Medici.
(3) Don Carlos recognized as King of Naples and Sicily, including the
Tuscan presidios, and surrendered the duchy of Parma to the Emperor.
(4) Charles Emmanuel III., King of Sardinia, received Novara and
Tortona.
(5) France to receive Lorraine on the death of Stanislas.
These preliminaries of peace were eventually ratified in the Treaty of
Vienna (18 Nov., 1738), when France also guaranteed the Pragmatic
Sanction.
Charles VI. endeavored to obtain revenge for his losses in the War of
the Polish Succession by attacking the Turks (1737), who were since
1736 at war with Russia ; attitude of France ; Villeneuve and Bonneval ;
the Turks generally successful ; by the Treaty of Belgrade (i Sept.,
96'^ Frederick William I. of Prussia.
1739) Austria restored to the Turks, Belgrade, Orsova, and all the terri-
tories acquired by the Treaty of Passarowitz, except Temesvar.
Death of the Emperor Charles VI. (20 Oct., 1740).
Authorities : For the military history of the War of the Polish Succession see
Pajol^ IvCS Guerres sous Louis XV., vols, i., ii., Siwd. Raihery, Le comte de Plelo ;
for the policy of Austria see Krones, Arneth, Beer, A Wolf, Forster, Vehse and
Bidermann, cited under I^ecture 34, Hq/ler, Der Congress von Soissons ( Pontes re-
rum Austriacarum, xxxii., xxxviii) ; for the policy of France sqq. Lacretelle, His-
toire du XVIII ieme siecle; yb^^^, Iva France sous Louis XV.; Tocqueville, Histoire
philosophique du regne de Louis XV.; Bonhomme, Louis XV. et sa famille ; Des
Reaulx, Le roi Stanislas et la reine Marie Leczinska; Boye, Stanislas Leczinski
et le troisieme traite de Vienne ; Vandal, Une ambassade fran9aise en Orient sous
Louis XV. ; la mission du Marquis deVilleneuve (1720-41), and Le Pacha Bonne val,
and D^ Haussonviile, Histoire de la reunion de la Lorraine a la France. Among
primary authorities on French history should be noted the Memoires oi Du-
clos, Barbier, D^ Argenson, Maihieu Marais and Luynes.
LECTURE 36.
FREDERICK WILLIAM I. OF PRUSSIA, AND THE TSARITSA ANNE OP
RUc^blA.
The character of Frederick William I. (b. 15 August, 1688J, King
of Prussia (17 13-1740).
The foreign policy of Frederick William I. : in spite of his love for
military organization, he avoided war as much as possible ; his only
important territorial conquest was the district of Pomerania between
the Oder and the Peene, which gave him the port of Stettin on the Baltic
(21 Jan., 1720) ; after the conclusion of the Northern War, Frederick
William I. supported the doctrine of the Balance of Power in Europe ;
his relations with England ; married to Sophia Dorothea, daughter of
George I. ""^ ri Vi>~Nr'^'"'^^^^*J^>>>^*»^^' Iv
One keynote of Frederick William's policy was his desire to inherit
the duchies of Juliers and Berg, which it had been arranged should fall
to Brandenburg on the extinction of the House of Neuburg, then ruling
Frederick Williajii I. of Prussia. 97
"in the Palatinate ; on the promise of the Emperor to secure Juliers and
Berg to him, Frederick William I. guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction,
deserted ihe League of Hanover and signed the Treaty of Wuster-
hausen (12 Oct., 1726); his schemes for obtaining Royal Prussia and
negotiations with Augustus I. of Poland ; Frederick William I.'s atti- .
tude towards Austria and towards the Empire ; he disapproved of the
election of Augustus II. to the throne of Poland, but nevertheless sup-
ported Charles VI. in the War of the Polish Succession.
The internal policy of Frederick William I. : his creation of the ad-
ministrative system ; he deprived the nobility of all share in civil ad-
ministration, which he entrusted to a middle-class bureaucracy; his
centralized system and paternal government ; his improvement of the
finances and economic administration ; his attitude towards religion ;
he welcomed the Lutheran exiles from Salzburg and gave them lands
to cultivate (1731-33).
The military policy of Frederick William I.: he introduced strict
discipline and a new system of drill ; his passion for tall soldiers ; the
excellence of his army ; he filled the ranks of all grades of ofl&cers from
the nobles ; he recruited the army partly by compulsory service, partly
by voluntary enlistment ; he increased the Prussian army from 38,000
to 84,000 men \ the work of Leopold of Anhalt- Dessau (b. 1676, d.
1747)-
Frederick William I. and his family : his quarrels with the Crown
Prince, afterwards known as Frederick the Great.
Death of Frederick William I. (31 May, 1740).
Accession of Frederick II. (b. 24 Jan., 171 2): his character and early
training ; his life at Rheinsberg.
Russia under the Tsaritsa Anne (1730-40) : circumstances under
which Anne obtained the throne ; she drove from power the oligarch-
ical party led by Ivan £)olgoruki, which had placed her on the throne,
and was proclaimed Autocrat (21 March, 1730); governed by her lover,
Biren (b. 1690, d. 1772), who became Duke of Courland on the extinc-
tion of the House of Kettler (1737); she carried out the policy of Peter
the Great in home administration and maintained Western ideas ; in the
administration of Russia, she employed German generals and ministers;
Ostermann (b. 1686, d. 1747); Miinnich (b. 1683, d. 1767); discontent
of the Old Russian party at the internal policy of Anne.
98 The Tsaritsa Anne.
The foreign policy of the Tsaritsa Anne : she maintained the alli-
ance with the Emperor Charles VI., entered into by Catherine I., and
guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction ; she carried out the ideas of Peter
the Great with regard to the Poles and the Turks ; in the War of the
Polish Succession she placed Augustus II. of Saxony upon the throne
of Poland; in the war with the Turks (i 736-1 739) a Russian army
under Miinnich and Peter Lacy (b. 1678, d. 1751) conquered the Crimea
and took Azov (i July, 1736); by the treaty of peace with the Turks
(18 Sept., 1739), Russia abandoned the Crimea and obtained Azov, but
promised to maintain no fleet on the Black Sea.
Death of the Tsaritsa Anne (28 October, 1740).
Accession of Ivan VI. (b. 23 Aug., 1740), grand-nephew of Anne, under
the regency of Biren ; by a coup d' etat (20 Nov., 1740) Biren was over-
thrown and the mother of the infant king, Anne of Mecklenburg,
Duchess of Brunswick- Be vern, was made regent ; unpopularity of the
new Regent on account of her German tendencies ; quarrel between
Miinnich and the Tsar's father ; disgrace of Miinnich ; Elizabeth (b.
1709), younger daughter of Peter the Great, supported by the Old
Russian party and some personal friends, overturned this government
and was proclaimed Tsaritsa (6 Dec, 1741); imprisonment of the Tsar
Ivan VI. and his parents. (See Appendix VI.)
Authorities : Of books in English on this period of Prussian history see
TuUle, History of Prussia, and Carlyle, History of Frederick the Great. Among
general secondary histories consult Berner, Gescbichte des preussischen
Staates ; Stenzel, Geschichte des preussischen Staats; Droysen, Geschichte der
preussischen Politik, vol. iv. ; Ranke, Zwolf Biicher preussischer Geschichte ;
Pariset, L' etat et les eglises en Prusse (1713-1740); Philippson, Geschichte
des preussischen Staatswesens ; Bornhak, Geschichte des preussischen Verwalt-
ungsrechts ; Isaacsohn, Geschichte des preussischen Beamtenthums ; Stadelmann^
Preussens Konige in ihrer Thaiigkeit fur die Landeskultur, vol. i., and Cavaignac
lya Formation de la Prusse contemporaine. More special studies of the reign are
contained in Forster, Friedrich Wilhelm I., Konig von Preussen ; Paulig, Fried-
rich Wilhelm I.; Beheim-Schwarzbach, Friedrich Wilhelms I. Kolonisationswerk
in Littauen, vornehmlich die Salzhurger Kolonie; Schntoller, Das politische Testa-
ment Friedrich Wilhelm's, and the numerous articles of Schmoller in different
periodicals, of which a complete list is given in Historische Zeitschrift, vol. Ivii.
For the early h^istory of Frederick the Great see the Memoirs of the Margravine
of Baireuth ; Koser, Friedrich der Grosse als Kro-prinz ; Lavisse, I^a jeunesse du
The Austrian Succession. 99
grand Fr^ddric, and Le grand Frdddric avant Tavdnement, and Hamilton, Rheins-
berg, Memorials of Frederick the Great and Prince Henry of Prussia. For the
Tsaritsa Anne reference may be made to Morfill Story of Russia ; Rambaiid^
Histoire de la Russie ; Baitty The Pupils of Peter the Great, a history of the Rus-
sian Court and Empire from 1697 to 1740; Manstein, Contemporary Memoirs of
Russia (1727-44) ; Halem, Lebensbeschreibung des russischen general- feldmar-
schalls MUnnich ; Miinnich, Memoiren, ed. Jiirgefisohn ; Jafisen, Graf zu Lynar,
and the despatches of foreign ministers in the Sbornik.
LECTURE 37,
THE WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSIOM.
Important changes caused in Europe in 1740 by the deaths of Fred-
erick William I. of Prussia (31 May), of the Emperor Charles VI. (20
October), and of the Tsaritsa Anne of Russia (28 October).
The two questions with regard to the succession to Charles VI. : (i)
the succession to the Hapsburg dominions ; (2) the succession to the
Empire.
The claimants to the Hapsburg succession : (i) the Elector of Ba-
varia ; (2) the Elector of Saxony and King of Poland ; (3) the King of
Spain; (see Appendix VII.); nevertheless Maria Theresa (b. 1717), elder
daughter of Charles VI., whose peaceful accession had been guaranteed
by the powers of Europe under the Pragmatic Sanction, ascended the
throne and declared her husband, Francis of Lorraine,, who since 1737
had been Grand Duke of Tuscany, to be joint ruler with her of the
Austrian dominions ; character of Maria Theresa.
Of the guarantors of the Pragmatic Sanction, Russia, England and
the United Provinces supported Mai^ Theresa ; Saxony, Spain and
Bavaria were openly hostile ; Sardinia and France favored the opposi-
tion ; and Prussia took the opportunity to attack Austria by invading
Silesia.
England's attitude towards Maria Theresa : the opposition of France
and Spain to her succession caused the English ministry to support her
loo First Silesian War,
claims ; war had been declared between England and Spain in October,
1739; causes of this war; Anson's voyage (1740-44) ; Vernon's cap-
ture of Porto Bello C1739) and failure before Carthagena (1741) ; influ-
ence of this war in defining England's attitude towards Austria ; retire-
ment of Sir Robert Walpole (17 Feb., 1742) ; position attained by-
England during Walpole' s peace administration ; the aims of his policy.
The attitude of France towards Maria Theresa : Fleury, like Wal-
pole, was essentially a peace minister, but a war party existed in Fiance
as in England ; the French war party desired to attack Austria; the
schemes of Belle- Isle (b. 1684, d. 1761); by the Treaty of Nymphen-
burg(i8 May, 1 741) he formed a league, against Maria Theresa, of France,
Spain and Bavaria, joined later by Saxony, Sardinia, and (5 June,
1 741) by Frederick the Great of Prussia.
The attitude of Russia towards Maria Theresa : the Regent, Anne
of Mecklenburg, proposed to assist her and to maintain the Pragmatic
Sanction ; France induced Sweden to declare war against Russia
(4 Aug., 1 741).
The First Silesian War (1740-42) : Frederick II. of Prussia invaded
Silesia (22 Dec, 1740) ; his demands and claims (see pp. 46, 70) ; he
defeated the Austrians under Neipperg at Mollwitz (10 April, 1741 ); his
agreement with France (5 June); capture of Breslau (10 Aug.) ; the
Convention of Klein Schnellendorf (9 Oct.).
Maria Theresa's appeals to the Magyar nobility; '^ Moriajuur pro
rege nostra, Maria Theresa ' ' ; enthusiasm in Hungary for her cause,
whether these words were used or not ; the three ceremonies at Press-
burg; the coronation (25 June, 1741), the vote of troops (13 Sept) and
the oath of regency (20 Sept.).
War of the Austrian Succession:
Campaign of 174 1: the Bavarians aided by a French army invaded
Austria (July) and Bohemia (Oct.) ; Convention of Klein Schnellen-
dorf (9 October) ; the French took Prague (25 November) ; the Elector
of Bavaria crowned King of Bohemia, (17 Dec.) ; the Russians under
Eacy defeated the Swedes at Wilmanstrand (3 Sept.); Elizabeth,
daughter of Peter the Great, seized the throne of Russia (6 Dec.) ;
death of Ulrica Eleanor, Queen of Sweden (5 Dec.) ; Frederick the
Great refused to observe the terms of the Convention of Klein Schnel-
lendorf (Nov.), invaded Moravia and took Olmiitz (26 Dec).
War of the Austrinti $^4,Cces%tm\ loi
The question of the election of an Emperor to succeed Charles VI. :
Maria Theresa put forward her husband, Francis of Lorraine ; the
French supported the Elector of Bavaria, who received the adhesion of
the Rhenish Electors, of Frederick the Great, and of Augustus II of
Saxony and Poland ; he was unanimously chosen (24 January, 1742)
and crowned as the Emperor Charles VII. (12 Feb.).
Campaign of 1742 : the effect of Maria Theresa's appeal to the Mag-
yars ; the Austrians under Khevenhiiller conquered Bavaria and took
Munich (12-14 Feb.) ; Frederick the Great defeated the Austrians un-
der Charles of Lorraine, brother-in-law of Maria Theresa, at Chotusitz
(17 May) ; the policy of Carteret (b. 1690, d. 1763) ; through the medi-
ation of England, Maria Theresa made peace with Frederick the Great
(28 July, 1742), and, by the Treaty of Berlin, ceded Silesia to Prussia ;
the Elector Augustus II. made peace with Maria Theresa at Dresden
(7 September) ; critical position of the French army in Prague ; escape
of part of the French army under Belle- Isle (16 December), and sur-
render of the remainder (25 Dec); the campaign in Italy; the policy
of Charles Emmanuel III., King of Sardinia ; he broke away from the
alliance of Nymphenburg (i Feb.), joined the Austrians and took Parma
and Modena ; campaign in Finland ; the Swedish army surrendered to
the Russians at Helsingfors (4 Sept.).
Campaign of 1743 : death of Fleury (29 January) ; attitude towards
politics of Louis XV. ; the failure of the campaign caused the ruin of
Belle- Isle; the English ministry induced the United Provinces to support
Maria Theresa (May); an English army invaded southern Germany;
George II. defeated the French under Noailles at Dettingen (27 June) ;
Treaty of Worms (13 September) between Maria Theresa, England
and Sardinia, by which Maria Theresa ceded Piacenza, Bobbio and the
county of Anghiera with Vigevano to Charles Emmanuel III. ; England
promised him a large subsidy for effective assistance in Italy ; this alli-
ance met by the Treaty of Fontainebleau between France and Spain
(25 October), closely uniting the two Bourbon kingdoms ; France de-
clared war against Charles Emmanuel (30 September): by the Treaty
of Abo (23 June), peace made between Sweden and Russia; southern
Finland to the Kiiimen ceded to Russia ; Adolphus Frederick of Hol-
stein, Bishop of Liibeck, recognized as heir to the Swedish throne ;
I02 War of lAe Austrian Succession.
Christian VI. of Denmark made an alliance with George II. of England
(December).
Campaign of 1744 : influence of Madame de Chateauroux ; France,
which had hitherto taken part in the war as ally of Bavaria, declared
war against England (15 March) and Austria (26 April) ; Marshal Saxe
(b. 1696, d. 1750) invaded the Catholic Netherlands ; Charles "ot J^or-
raine invaded Alsace ; illness ofLLQuis-KV. ; Frederick the Great mar-
ried his sister Louisa TThiua Lo Adolphus of Holstein, heir to the
Swedish throne, and thus offended the Tsaritsa Elizabeth of Russia ;
Frederick the Great resolved again to attack Austria ; he formed the
Union of "P'^^nkfor^ \m\\\\ the Emperor Charles VII., the Elector Pala-
tine, and the King of Sweden as Eandgrave of Hesse- Cassel (9 June);
he declared himself forced as an Elector to defend the Emperor (9 Au-
gust) ; the Second Silesian war (1744-45) : Frederick invaded Bohemia
and took Prague (2 September) ; Charles of Lorraine, recalled from Al-
sace, evacuated Bavaria ; the Prussians forced to retire from Bohemia :
D'Argenson (b. 1694, d. 1757) Minister of Foreign Affairs in France
(18 November) ; in Italy the Austrians, advancing on Naples, were de-
feated by the Neapolitans and the Spaniards under Gages at Velletri (11
August), and a French and Spanish army under Conti and Don Philip
conquered Nice and defeated Charles Emmanuel III. at the Madonna
dell 'Olmo C30 Sept.); dismissal of Carteret, who was succeeded in the
control of English foreign policy by Pelham (23 Nov., 1744) ; death of
the Emperor Charles VII. (30 Jan., 1745).
Campaign of 1745 : Maria Theresa signed the Treaty of Fiissen with
the new Elector of Bavaria, Maximilian Joseph (22 April), by which
Bavaria renounced all claims to the Austrian succession, guaranteed the
Pragmatic Sanction, and promised to vote for the election as Emperor,
of Francis of Lorraine ; Marshal Saxe defeated the English at Fontenoy
( 1 1 May) and took the fortresses of the Catholic Netherlands ; the Jaco-
bite rising in Scotland headed by the Young Pretender distracted the
attention of the English government ; Louisburg, on Cape Breton, cap-
tured by the American colonists (28 June) ; Augustus II. of Saxony
and Poland declared himself on the side of Maria Theresa (18 May)
and invaded Silesia with the Austrians ; Frederick the Great defeated
the invaders at Hohenfriedberg (4 June) and at Soor (30 September) ;
War of the Austrian Succession. 103
Francis of IrOrraine elected Emperor by seven votes to two (13 Septem-
ber); Frederick tlie Great defeated the Saxons at Kesselsdorf ( 1 5 De-
cember), took Dresden and conquered Saxony ; the Spaniards under
Gages and the French under Maillebois defeated Charles Emmanuel,
King of Sardinia, at Bassignano (27 September) and took all his for-
tresses, except Turin and Alessandria ; the Spaniards took Parma, Pia-
cenza and Milan (16 December) ; by the Treaties of Dresden (25
December) Maria Theresa confirmed the cession of Silesia and all
privileges granted to Frederick by the Emperor Charles VII., and Au-
gustus paid 1,000,000 thalers in gold, while Frederick recognized the
Emperor Francis and evacuated Saxony.
Campaign of 1746 : the Young Pretender defeated at CuUoden (16
April); the Austrians recovered Milan (19 March) and defeated the
French and Spaniards at Piacenza (16 June) ; offensive and defensive
alliance signed between Maria Theresa and the Tsaritsa Elizabeth of
P.ussia (26 July) ; death of Philip V. of Spain (9 July) ; the Spaniards
and French withdrew from Italy; the Austrians took Genoa (6 Sept.) ;
in the Netherlands Marshal Saxe captured Brussels and Antwerp and de-
feated the English and Austrians under Charles of Lorraine at Raucoux
(11 October) ; resumption of the duchy of Guastalla on the death of
the last duke (16 August) by Maria Theresa ; the Austrians under
Browne with the Sardinians invaded Provence ; the Genoese expelled
the Austrians (5-10 December) ; capture of Madras by I^a Bourdonnais
(14 September).
Campaign of 1747 : dismissal of D'Argenson (10 Jan.) ; the Confer-
ence of Breda ; Marshal Saxe invaded the Protestant Netherlands ;
revolution there ; William IV. of Orange-Nassau declared Stadtholder
(3 May) and the stadtholderate made hereditary in his family ; Marshal
Saxe defeated the English, Dutch and Austrians under Cumberland at
Lauffeld (2 July); storm of Bergen-op-Zoom (16 Sept.) by Lowendal ;
defense of Genoa by Boufflers ; battle of the Col d'Assiette (19 July).
Campaign of 1748 : the Tsaritsa Elizabeth of Russia sent help to
Maria Theresa ; England and France determined upon peace.
Preliminaries of peace signed between England, France and the
Dutch at Aix-la-Chapelle ''30 ApriH, and accepted by Austria (25
May), and by Spain and Genoa (28 June).
I04 War of the Austriaji Succession.
Definitive treaty of peace signed at Aix-la-Chapelle by England,
France and the Dutch (i8 Oct.), Spain (20 Oct.), Austria (23 Oct.),
Modena (25 Oct.), Genoa ^28 Oct.) and Sardinia (7 Nov).
Authorities: Tlie best small book in English \s, Bright, Maria Theresa, •
The most recent and most thorough secondary books on the diplomatic history
of this period are the Due de Broglie, Frederic II. et Marie Th^rese, 1740-42; Fred-
^ricll. et Ivou's Xv^., 1742-44; Marie Therese imperatrice, 1744-46; Maurice de
Saxe et D'Argenson, 1746-48; and La paix d' Aix-la-Chapelle (1747-48); as a
primary authority see Matscheg, Storia politica di Europa, 1740-41, studiata
sui dispacci dci Veneti ambasciatori. For the Austrian side, see Coxe, History of
the House of Austria ; Vitlermont, Marie Therese ; Arneth, Geschichte Maria
Theresias, vols. 1-3; Podewils, Berichte iiber der Wiener Hofs (1746-48); A,
Wolf. CBsterreich unter Maria Theresia, and Aus dem Hofleben Maria Theresia
nach den Memoiren des Fiirsten J. Khevenhiiller, and G. Wolf, Aus der Zeit der
Kaiserin Maria Theresia ; for the Emperor Charles VII., Heigel, Der oester-
reichische Erbf olgestreit und der Kaiserwahl Karl's VII., and Das Tagebuch Kaisers
Karl's VII ; for Vr\xss\.a.,Droysen, Geschichte der preussischen Politik, vols. 11 and 12;
Carlyte, History of Frederick the Great; Tuttte, History of Prussia; Koser, Konig
Priedrich der Grosse; Preuss, Friedrich der Grosse; Preussische Staatschriften aus
der Regierungszeit Friedrichs II. vols, i, 2, ed. Koser, and Raumer, Konig Fried-
rich II. und seine Zeit, with the Politische Correspondenz Friedrichs des Grossen,
SiU.^ Frederick the Great, Histoire de mon temps ; for Holland, Beer, Uber Holland
und der CEsterreichische Erbfolgekrieg (in the Sitzungsberichte des kaiserlichen
Akademie fiir Wissenschaft, vol. Ixvii.) ; for England, Ballantyne, Lord Carteret ;
and for France, Correspondance de Louis XV. et du marechal de Noailles, ed. Rous-
set ; the Memoires of D' Argenson, ed. Rathery; Chdteaiiroux, Correspondance ; the
Journal of Barbier ; the Memoires of Valory, Noailles, Duclos, and the Due de
Luynes \ Taillandier, Maurice de Saxe; Karl Weber, Moritz, Graf von Sachsen;
Vitzthum, Maurice, comte de Saxe et Marie Joseph e de Saxe, dauphine de France ;
SinHy, Vie du marechal de Lowendal; Ogle, The Marquis D'Argenson, and Zevort
Le marquis d'Argenson et le ministere des affaires etrangeres. For the military
history of the war in western Europe consult Pajol, Les guerres sous Louis XV.,
vols. 2, 3; De Vault, Les guerres des Alpes ; guerre dela succession d'Autriche, ed.
Aruers; Crousse, La guerre de la succession d'Autriche dans les provinces Belgiques,
avec une biographie du Marechal de Saxe ; Valfons Souvenirs ; Moris, Opera-
tions militaires dans les Alpes pendant la guerre de succession d'Autriche; and Thiir-
helm, Graf von Khevenhiiller^ and Graf von Abenberg und Traun ; and of the first
Silesian war, Gricnhagen, Geschichte des ersten schlesischen Krieges ; and Die
Kriege Friedrichs des Grossen, ed. the Prussian General Staff, vols 1-3. The text
of the treaties and other diplomatic documents are contained in Wenck, Codex
juris gentium recentissimi (1735-1772).
The Treaty of Aix-la-ChapeUe, 105
LECTURE 38.
Vhe treaty of aix-la-chapelle, and the; austro-french
alliance.
The first negotiations for peace: Conference of Breda (i 746-1 747);
the Conference broken up by the refusal of Maria Theresa to negotiate
with France ; the dismissal of D' Argenson.
Negotiations resumed at Aix-la-Chapelle : the chief plenipotentiaries
were for England, Sandwich ; for France, Saint-Severin ; for Spain,
Soto- Mayor ; for the United Provinces, Bentinck, and for Austria, Kau-
nhz-4 Maria Theresa refused to surrender a principality in Italy for
5on Philip ; the negotiations broken off ; after the defeat of Lauflfeld,
England resolved that peace should be made ; on 30 April, 1748, Eng-
land, France and the Dutch signed preliminaries of peace at Aix-la-
Chapelle ; Austria forced to assent, and by the end of 1748 the Peace of
Aix-la-Chapelle was accepted by all the powers.
By the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle :
(i) Austria : Francis I. acknowledged as Emperor ; the Pragmatic
Sanction again confirmed ; the Catholic Netherlands recovered ; Silesia,
part of Lombardy, Parma and Piacenza lost.
(2) France evacuated the Catholic Netherlands, which had been con-
quered by Marshal Saxe ; acknowledged the Protestant succession in
England, and undertook to expel the Pretender.
(3) England received again the commercial advantages given by
Spain by the Treaties of Utrecht [which were modified, 5 Oct., 1750],
and the status, quo ante bellum was restored in Asia and America ; by
this clause England recovered Madras, and France, Cape Breton.
(4) Spain acknowledged the Emperor Francis I. and Don Philip re-
ceived a principality in Italy.
(5) The Dutch were confirmed in the right to garrison the barrier for-
tresses (see p. 67).
(6) Don Philip of Spain, second son of Philip V. and Elizabeth Far-
nese, the younger brother of Don Carlos, King of Naples and Sicily, and
son-in-law of Louis XV., received Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla,
which were to revert to Austria on the failure of male heirs.
io6 • Europe^ 17^8-17^6,
(7) Charles Emmanuel III. recovered Savoy and Nice, and was con-
firmed in the possession of the districts of Lombardy ceded to him by
the Treaty of Worms, with the exception of the duchy of Piacenza;
this extended his eastern frontier to the Ticino.
(8) Frederick the Great of Prussia was confirmed in the possession
of Silesia.
The two states which profited most by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
were Prussia and Sardinia ; France and Spain gained nothing ; Austria
lost less than might have been expected ; England was saved from ex-
tinction in India.
After the close of the War of the Austrian Succession, Maria Theresa,
dissatisfied with the sacrifice of Silesia, which England had imposed
upon her, was ready to alter the policy of Austria ; her one desire the
recovery of Silesia.
Kaunitz (b. 171 1, d. 1794) : his character and policy ; his suggestion
of an alliance between France and Austria ; sent to Versailles to accom-
plish this end (1749)-
Louis XV. and his foreign policy : contrast between his avowed policy
and his secret diplomacy ; the influence of Madame de Pompadour
(b. 1 72 1, d. 1764) ; her dislike for Frederick the Great caused her to
favor the new departure:
The relations between Austria and Spain : the character of Ferdinand
VI. (1746-59) ; he entered into close alliance with Maria Theresa
(1752) ; the relations between England and Austria ; Maria Theresa
attempted to revive the foreign commerce of the Catholic Netherlands,
and thus offended the maritime powers of England and the United Pro-
vinces.
The relations between Austria and Russia : the Tsaritsa Elizabeth,
owing to her dislike for Frederick the Great, allied herself with Maria
Theresa.
The two issues which threatened to bring on a general war: (i) the
desire of Maria Theresa to recov^er Silesia; (2) the rivalry between Eng-
land and France in Asia and America.
The rivalry between France and England in India: the French and
English supported opposing native princes in the Deccan and the Kar-
natik; the schemes of Dupleix; first successes of Clive; the defence of
Arcot (1751); the recall of Dupleix (1754).
The Atistro-Frcnch Alliance. 107
The rivalry between France and England in America: the defeat o^
Braddock (9 July, 1755).
Maria Theresa refused to assist England against France; Frederick
the Great and George II., by the Convention of Westminster (16
January, 1756), made an alliance and guaranteed each other's terri-
tories.
Outbreak of war between England and France; Admiral Boscawen
seized two French frigates (1755); attack on Minorca by the Due de
Richelieu (17 April, 1756); war formally declared by England (17 May);
by France (9 June); surrender of Minorca (28 June).
Louis XV., disgusted at the alliance between Prussia and England,
resolved to accept the propositions of Kaunitz; Madame de Pompadour
assisted, and a secret treaty of alliance was signed between Austria and
France (i May, 1756).
Maria Theresa on this basis combined a general league against Fred-
erick the Great, which was joined by the Tsaritsa Elizabeth of Russia,
Augustus II. of Saxony and Poland, and other continental rulers.
Frederick the Great, hearing of these negotiations, invaded Saxony
(26 Aug., 1756), and thus commenced the Seven Years' War.
The Emperor Francis declared that Frederick had exposed himself to
penalties by thus attacking the Empire, and the Diet declared war
against Prussia (January, 1757); the Tsaritsa Elizabeth made an
ofiFensive alliance with Austria against Prussia (2 Feb., 1757), and
prepared an army; Sweden entered into alliance with France and Aus-
tria (21 Mar., 1757), and was promised eastern Pomerania ; Bernis,
who had made the secret treaty with Austria, concluded the second
treaty of Versailles with Austria (i May, 1757), and became Minister for
Foreign Affairs of France (July).
Importance of the diplomatic revolution effected by Kaunitz ; the
classic policy of France from the time of Richelieu had been based on
enmity against the House of Hapsburg ; causes of this change of front ;
unpopularity of the Austro- French alliance in France; its effects upon
Europe.
Authorities : The best secondary -wotk on the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle is
the Due de Broglie, La paix d' Aix-la-Chapelle; for the diplomatic revolution see
the Due de Broglie^ ^'alliance autrichienne ; R. IVaddiugton, I^ouis XV. et le
to8 The Seven Years' War,
renversement des alliances (1754-56), preliminaires diplomatiques de la guerre de
sept ans ; Von Arneth, Geschichte Maria Theresias, vol. iii., and Bernis, M^moires
et lettres, ed. Masson ; for the struggle between the French and English in India,
SQQMalleson, History of the French in India; and in America, Parkman, Half Cen-
tury of Conflict ; for the situation in Prussia, Carlyle, History of Frederick the
Great, should be used with care, and more reliance can be placed on Tuttle, History
of Prussia, vol. iii.; on Taysen, Zur Beurtheilung des siebenjahrigen Krieges, and
on Ra7ike, Der Ursprung des siebenjahrigen Krieges ; for Saxony, see Vitzthum,
Die Geheimnisse des sachsischen Kabinets Bnde 1745 bis Knde 1756 ; and for
Russia, Vandal, Louis XV. et Elisabeth de Russie ; for Austria, the works of Von
Arneth, A. Wolf and G. Wolf, cited under Lecture 37, may 'still be used with
Bentinck, Aufzeichnungen iiber Maria Theresia, mit einer Einleitung iiber die
CEsterreichische Politik in 1749-55, ed. Beer; for Prussia, the works cited under
Lecture 37, with Valory, Memoires ; and for France, with Barbier, D'Argenson,
De Luynes, Duclos, and Roussel, Correspondance de Louis XV. et du marechal de
Koailles, should be consulted Madame de Pompadour, Correspondance, ed. Ma-
lassis; Campardon, Madame de Pompadour et la cour de Louis XV.; Goncourt,
Madame de Pompadour; Broglie, Le secret du Roi ; Rousset, Le comte de Gisors,'
and Boutaru, Correspondence secrete inedite de Louis XV.
I.ECTURK 39,
THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR.
The position of the powers of Europe at the outbreak of the {Seven
Years' War : difference of the aims of England and Prussia ; the chief
desire of Maria Theresa and. the Tsaritsa Elizabeth was to humble
Frederick the Great and to reduce the power of Prussia ; the policy of
France was not so much to defeat Prussia as to check the expansion of
England.
The United Provinces, owing to the death of the Stadtholder, Wil-
liam IV. (1751), and the minority of his son, pursued a peace policy
and declared neutrality.
England desired to fight at sea and in America and India, but was
drawn into the continental war by the connection with Hanover ; Pitt
(b. 1707, d. 1778) perceived the solidarity of the struggle upon the
Continent with the maritime and colonial war, and advocated vigorous
TTie Seven Years* War. 109
support of Frederick the Great ; Prussia had to meet the assault of
Austria, Russia, Sweden and France ; excellence of the Prussian army;
Frederick the Great as a statesman and a general.
The Seven Years' War : the campaign of 1756 ; Frederick the Great
invaded Saxony (26 August) and occupied Dresden ; the Saxon army
surrounded at Pirna ; the Austrians under Browne marched to their
assistance ; the battle of Lobositz (i October); surrender of the whole
Saxon army at Pirna (16 October); anger of Louis XV. at the attack
on Saxony ; capture of Oswego by Montcalm (14 August).
The campaign of i7S7 : scheme of an invasion of Prussia by the*
Austrians, French, Imperialists, Russians and Swedes ; Frederick took
the offensive and invaded Bohemia ; he defeated the Austrians at
Prague (6 May); Daun (b. 1705, d. 1766) advanced to the relief of
Prague and defeated Frederick at Kolin (18 June); retreat of the Prus-
sians from Bohemia ; the French under D'Estrees defeated the Duke of
Cumberland at Hastenbeck (26 Julyj; Cumberland made the Conven-
tion of Kloster-zeven (10 September) ; the Russians under Apraxin
defeated the Prussians under Lehwaldt at Gross- Jagerndorf (30 August)
and conquered Ducal Prussia ; the Imperialists with a French army
under Soubise utterly defeated by Frederick the Great at Rossbach (5
November); the Russians retired and the Swedes were driven out of ^^^^
Pomerania ; Frederick defeated the Austrians at Leuthen (5 Decem^^JJ^
ber) and recovered the whole of Silesia ; Pitt repudiated the Conven- j\ .^^^j^
tion of Kloster-zeven, granted a subsidy to Frederick and placed an
English and Hanoverian army under the command of Ferdinand of
Brunswick (b. 1721, d. 1792); failure of an English expedition against
Rochefort ; Montcalm's capture of Fort William Henry (9 August).
Campaign of 1758: renewal of the alliances between England and
Prussia, and between Austria, France and Russia ; Choiseul (b. 1719, d.
1785) became chief minister of France and supported more strongly the
Austro- French alliance ; Fermor with a Russian army took Konigsberg
(21 Jan.); Frederick took Schweidnitz (16 April), and invaded Bohemia ;
forced to retreat to meet a Russian invasion; battle of Zorndorf (25 Au-
gust) between Frederick and Fermor ; Frederick defeated by the Aus-
trians under Daun at Hochkirch (14 October); the Austrians retreated
into Bohemia ; Ferdinand of Brunswick drove the French out of Han-.
no The Stjen Years' Way.
over and Westphalia, crossed the Rhine, and defeated them at Crefeld
(26 June); Amherst and Boscawen took Louisburg (26 July), but Aber-
cromby was repulsed from Ticonderoga (8 July); occupation by the
English of Fort Frontenac (27 Aug.) and of Fort Duquesne (25 Nov.);
unsuccessful English attacks on the French coast at Saint-Malo, Cher-
bourg and Saint-Cast.
Campaign of ij.SQ^ the Russians under Soltikov defeated Wedell at yy^
Kay (23 July), took Frankfort- on- the- Oder, and were joined by the Aus- 1 ^
trian army under Loudon ; Frederick utterly defeated at Kunersdorf by
the Russians and Austrians (12 August) ; Saxony occupied by the
Austrians and Imperialists ; surrender of a Prussian army to Daun at
Maxen (21 November); desperate position of Frederick the Great;
Ferdinand pf^ Brunswick defeated the French under Contades at
/^fiin^en ( i August) ; English victories at sea: Boscawen defeated
one French fleet at Lagos (17 August), and Hawke another off Qui-
bergn (21 November) ; capture of Guadeloupe (20 April) ; Lally's fail-
ure to take Madras ; the English took Fort Niagara (25 July) and Fort
Ticonderoga (26 July); Wolfe defeated Montcalm, and took Quebec (18
September).
Campaign of 1760 : Loudon (b. 1717, d. 1790) defeated the Prussians
at Landeshut (23 June) ; defeated by Frederick at Liegnitz (15 Au-
gust); the Russians and Austrians occupied Berlin; Frederick recovered
his capital and defeated Daun at Torgau (3 November) ; Ferdinand of
Brunswick kept the French out of Hanover and Westphalia, but his
nephew was defeated by Broglie at Kloster-Camp (16 Oct.); Eyre
Coote defeated the French at Wandewash (22 January), and overthrew
the power of France in India ; Amherst took Montreal (8 September),
and completed the occupation of Canada ; death of George II. of Eng-
land (25 October).
Campaign of 1761: exhaustion of the nations engaged in the war ;
Loudon took Schweidnitz ; Frederick fought no pitched battle ; Ferdi-
nand of Brunswick prevented Broglie from advancing ; the Russians
conquered Pomerania, but failed to take Stettin ; the English captured
Belle- Isle off the coast of France (7 June); capture of Pondicherry
(15 Jan.); Choiseul signed the Pacte de Famille between France and
Spain (15 Aug.); resignation of Pitt (5 Oct.).
The Sci'Di Years'^ War. Ill
Campaipfn of 1762: Spain declared war against England (16 Jan-
uary;; the English took Martinique (13 Feb.); Grenada (4 March);
Saint Vincent (Mar. j; Havana (14 Aug.), and Manilla (6 Oct.); Bute be-
came Prime Minister of England (26 May); he refused to continue pay-
ing subsidies to Frederick ; death of the Tsaritsa Elizabeth of Russia (5
Jan.); her successor, Peter III., made an offensive and defensive al-
liance with Frederick (5 May); revolution at St. Petersburg (9 July);
Peter III. overthrown by his wife, Catherine ;^,3he~^eclared neu-
trality; Frederick took Schweidnitz (9 Octob^); the Prussians invaded
South Germany ; the Diet of the Empire declared neutrality; negotia-
tions for peace ; a truce signed between Austria and Prussia.
The Seven Years' War concluded by the Treaties of Hubertsburg
and Paris.
By the Treaty of Hubertsburg (15 February, 1763), the status quo ante
bellmn restored between Austria and Prussia ; Silesia again guaranteed
to Prussia ; Frederick promised to vote for Joseph as King of the
Romans and to evacuate Saxony.
By the Treaty of Paris (10 February, 1763), France ceded Canada,
Cape Breton, Senegal, Tobago, Dominica, Saint Vincent, Grenada and
the Grenadines, and restored Minorca, to England ; Spain ceded
Florida to England, in return for which France ceded Louisiana to
Spain ; the English restored Belle-Isle, Guadeloupe, Martinique and
the settlements in India to France, and Havana ^.d Manilla to Spain.
General results of the Seven Years' War ; policy of Frederick the
Great and its results ; the policy of Pitt and its results.
Authorities : An excellent short book in English is Longman, Frederick the
Great and the Seven Years' War ; the volumes devoted to this period hy Carlyle^
in his History of Frederick the Great, are the most valuable in his book. For the
military history of the war, see Geschichte des siebenjahrigen Krieges, ed. the
Prussian General Staff; Frederick the Greats Histoire de la guerre de Sept Ans;
Lloyd, History of the late War in Germany ; Joniini^ Grand Military Opera-
tions ; Tielcke, Beytrage zur Kriegskunst und Geschichte des Krieges von 1756
bis 1763; ArchenhoHz, Geschichte des siebenjahrigen Krieges in Deutschland ;
Schoning, DersiebenjahrigeKrieg; Schdfer, Geschichte des siebenjahrigen Krieges;
Ranihaud, Russes et Prussiens, guerre de Sept Ans ; Hasenkamp, Ost-Preussen
unter dem Doppelaar, historische Skizze der russischen Invasion in der Tagen des
siebenjahrigen Krieges; Imrnich, Die Schlacht bei Zorndorf; Malleson, London?
JU^
^
112 France under Louis XV.
Bernhardt^ Pri'ediricli der Grosse als Feldherr ; Westphalen^ Geschichte der Feld-
ziige des Herzogs Ferdinands von Braunschweig-Iyuneburg ; Renouard, Geschichte:
des Krieges in Hannover, Hessen und Westphalen ; Valfons^ Souvenirs \Roussety
Le comte de Gisors ; Blention, I^e comte de Saint-Germain, and Pajol, Les guerres
sous lyouis XV., vols, iv., v. For the diplomatic history of the war see the works,
cited under Lecture 38 with Due de Broglie, Voltaire avant et pendant la guerre de
Sept Ans ; Filon, L'ambassade de Choiseul a Vienne en 1757-58 ; Bisset, Memoirs
and Papers of Sir A. Mitchell ; Bonhomme, Madame de Pompadour general
d'armee ; Ruville, Die Auflosung des preussisch-englischen Bundnisses im Jahre
1762, and Beaulieu-Marconnay, Der Hubertsburger Friede. For the policy of Pitt,
see Stanhope, History of England from the Peace of Utrecht, vols, v.-vii. For the
struggle in India, Malleson, History of the French in India, and in America Park*
man, Montcalm and Wolfe.
^ECTURE 40.
FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XV.
The internal government of France during the 18th centttry r the ad-
ministrative machinery created in the 17th century retained without
modification ; the central government ; the work of the intendants in
the provinces ; growth of the importance of the police ; condition of
Paris ; introduction of lighting and fire- protection by Sartine.
The Court of Louis XV. and its influence on internal politics after the
death of Fleury ; its influence on foreign politics ; the power of the
king's mistresses; Madame de Chateauroux (1740-44); Madame de
Pompadour (1745-64) ; the attempt of Damiens to murder the king^
(5 Jan., 1757) ; the Queen, Marie Leczinska (d. 1768); the Dauphin (b.
1729, d. 1765) ; his wives, Marie Therese of Spain and Marie Josephe of
Saxony ; his three sons ; the king's daughters ; their circle and influ-
ence ; typical courtiers ; Richelieu, Maurepas, Nivernais.
The ministers of Louis XV. : their dependence on the Court and the
mistresses ; growth of ministerial families ; constant changes of minis-
ters ; court intrigues ; the most notable ministers from the death of
Fleury to the dismissal of Choiseul ; D'Aguesseau (1757-50), and La-
France under Louis XV. 1 13
moignon (1750-68), Chancellors ; Amelot (1737-44), Rend Louis,
marquis d'Argenson (1744-47), Rouille (1754-57), Bernis (1757-58),
Choiseul (1758-61 and 1766-70), and Choiseul-Praslin (1761-66), For-
eign Affairs ; Machault (1745-54), Finances ; Marc Pierre, comte d'Ar-
genson (1742-57J, Belle-Isle (1758-61), and Choiseul (1761-70), War ;
Maurepas (1723-49), Rouille (1749-54), Machault (1754-57), Berryer
(1758-61), Choiseul (1761-66), and Choiseul-Praslin (1766-70), Ma-
rine; Lieutenants-General of Police, Herault (1725-40), Berryer (1747-
57) and Sartine U 759-74)-
The private foreign policy of the king, the "secret du Roi "; its con-
flict with the diplomacy of his ministers ; the comte de Broglie.
The foreign policy of Choiseul : its chief features, the Pacte de
Famille (1761) and the marriage of Marie Antoinette to the heir of
France (16 May, 1770) ; popularity of the Spanish and unpopularity of
the Austrian alliance in France ; Favier ; annexation of Lorraine on
the death of Stanislas Leczinski (1766) ; purchase of Corsica from the
Genoese (1768) and its conquest (1769) ; his policy in Poland and at
Constantinople ; the dismissal of Choiseul (24 Dec, 1770).
The weak points in the internal administration: confusion and mis-
management of the finances after the administrations of Orry and
Machault; condition of the provinces; steady improvement in manu-
factures; prosperity of commerce with the West Indies; Bordeaux;
success of the planters in San Domingo, the French Antilles and the
Mauritius; abandonment of rivalry with the English in India; suspen-
sion of the French East India Company (1769); decline in the pros-
perity of agriculture ; state control of the internal grain trade ; the
Pacte de Famine.
The part played by the Parlements and especially by the Parlement
of Paris down to the time of the dismissal of Choiseul; exile of the Par-
lement (1753-54); the reforms of 13 Dec, 1756; the strength and weak-
ness of the Parlements; their attempt to interfere in internal politics;
their Jansenist proclivities cause them to support Choiseul against the
Jc .;its.
Affairs in Brittany: quarrels of the governor, D'Aiguillon, with the
Estates of Brittany and the Parlement of Rennes; La Chalotais; resig-
nation of the Parlement and arrest of La Chalotais (1765); triumph of
the Estates and Parlement, and resignation of D'Aiguillon (i769\
114 France under Louis XV.
The last mistress of Louis XV.: the career and character of Madame
du Barry (b. 1746, d. 1793), and her influence; her presentation at
Court (1769); the dismissal of Choiseul; France governed by D'Aig-
uillon, Terrai and Maupeou ; the work of these ministers; D'Aig-
uillon, Minister of Foreign Affairs (1771-74) ; his foreign policy;
position of France during the partition of Poland ; its influence
in the Russo-Turkish war ; the financial policy of Terrai, Controller-
General of the Finances (1769-74); he declared partial bankruptcy;
Maupeou, Chancellor of France (1768), and the Parlements ; he exiled
the former judges and created the Parlements Maupeou (1771).
Degradation of the Court of France in the last days of Louis XV.;
his conduct destroyed the prestige of the French monarchy.
Condition of France during the reign of Louis XV. : its advance in
material wealth; general improvement in education, the work of the
Oratorians.
Rise of the French school of political economists known as the
Physiocrats; their works drew attention to the importance of the agri-
cultural interest ; Quesnay ; attempts made to improve agriculture ;
effect of the physiocratic theories on commerce; Vincent de Gournay;
the works of the Marquis de Mirabeau.^^ui^' <^ 4AJcnM\AMp) t^
Intellectual condition of France under Louis XV. : effect of the works
of '' the philosophes " ; Voltaire and his influence ; Diderot ; the publi-
cation of the Encyclopidie Methodique ; Jean Jacques Rousseau ; his
influence on political and social ideas, and upon education; the Contrat
Social, the Profession de foi d'un Vicaire Savoyard, the Nouvelle Heloise
and Emile. (^-^^
Position of affairs at the death of Louis XV. (10 May, 1774); weak-
ness of the administrative machine : prosperity and intelligence of the
middle classes ; political insignificance of the nobility; condition of the
Church ; evil effect of privilege ; general expectation of a new or^er of
things inspired by the intellectual movement.
Authorities: Among secondary AistonVs may be noted Voltaire, SSkoX^ ^^
Louis XV. ; Lacretelle, Histoire de France pendant le XVIIIieme siecle, 6 vols., and
La France sous Louis XV., 6 vols., and Tocqueville, Histoire philosophique du
r^gne de Louis XV. The memoirs dealing with the period are described in
Aubertin, L'esprit public au XVIIIieme siecle ; among them may be particularly
The Suppression of the Jesuits » 115
noticed .those of the Due de Luyfies, Ptisident Henauli, D'Argenson^ ed.
Rathery^ Barbier, Madame du Hausset, Pierre Narbofine, Dufort de Cheveniy, At-
lonville, and Bachaumoni (those of the Due de Richelieu and the Souvenirs of
Madame de Crequi are compilations) and Tilly, Souvenirs. Upon the finances,
Stounn^ Les Finances de I'aucien regime et de la Revolution, and Marion, Machault
d'Arnouville, ^tude sur I'histoire du contr61e g^n^rale des finances de 1749 d 1754,
may be consulted ; on the Physiocrats, Higgs, The Physiocrats ; Lavergne^ Les
economistes frangais au XVIIIieme si^cle ; Schelle, Vincent de Goumay, and Du-
pont de Nemours et I'^cole physiocratique ; Galianiy Correspondance, ed. Perey
and Maugras ; Turgot, CEuvres ; and the writings of the Physiocrats, ed. Duponide
Nemours, 10 vols., or ed. Daire, 15 vols.; on the Pacte de Famine, Biollay, Le
pacte de famine, and A/anassiev, Le commerce des c^r^ales en France au X VIII*
si^cle ; on the secret diplomacy, Broglie, Le secret du Roi; Boutaric, Correspondance
secrete de Louis XV. ; Gaillardet, M^moires sur la chevali^re d'Eon, and Telfer,
The Strange Career of the Chevalier d'Eon de Beaumont; on the policy of Choiseul,
Soulange-Bodin, La diplomatic de Louis XV. et le Pacte de Famille, and Daubigny,
Choiseul et la France d'Outre-mer apres le traitd de Paris ; on local administration,
Legrandy Senac de Meilhan et I'iutendance du Hainaut ; Dumas, La g^neralitd de
Tours au XVIII* sidcle ; Garni, Les Eiats de Bretagne ; Garre, La Chalotais et le
due d'Aiguillon ; Marion, La Bretagne et le due d' Aiguillon (1753-1770);
Mathieu, L'ancien regime dans la province de Lorraine, and D' Haussonville, His-
toire de la reunion de la Lorraine a la France, vol. iv.; on the latter years of Louis
XV., Vatel^ Histoire de Madame Du Barry, and Flamynertjwnt, Le chancelier
Maupeou et les Parlements ; and on the king's court and his personality, Bon^
hommey Louis XV. et sa famille ; D'Armaille, La reine Marie Leczinska ;
Emm. de Broglie, Le fils de Louis XV., Louis, Dauphin de France, (1729-1765);
Barthelemy, Mesdames de France ; Correspondance secrete entre IMarie Th^rese et
le comte de Mercy- Argenteau, ed. Ameth and Geffroy ; Grelineaujoly, Histoire
des trois derniers princes de la maison de Conde, and Maugras , Le due de Lauzun
et la cour intime de Louis XV.
LECTURE 41.
THE SUPPRESSION OF THE JESUITS.
The condition of the southern countries of Europe in the middle of
the 18th century : their internal development under reforming kings
or great ministers ; influence exerted by the philosophic doctrines of the
Ii6 The Suppression of the Jesuits,
time towards religious toleration and general reform ; altered attitude
towards the Pope and the Church.
The Popes of the i8th century : Clement XI. — Albani — 1700-1721 ;
disputes with Victor Amadeus, King of Sicily ; Innocent XIII. — Conti
— 1721-24; Benedict XIII. — Orsini — 1724-30; he confirmed the con-
demnation of the Jansenists, and maintained the bull " Unigenitus" as
an article of faith ; his personal piety and amiability ; rapacity and
misgovernment of Cardinal Coscia ; Clement XII. — Corsini — 1730-40 ;
punishment of Coscia ; Benedict XIV. — Lambertini — 1740-58 ; his
skill as a statesman ; his philosophicaTtendencies and moderation ; his
correspondence with Voltaire ; his buildings at Rome ; he died before
the opposition to the Jesuits reached its height ; Clement XIII. — Rez-
zonico — 1758-69 ; his refusal to consent to the suppression of the So-
ciety of Jesus.
The general discontent in Roman Catholic countries caused by the
commercial operations of the Jesuits ; the Society ceased to be self-
sacrificing and devoted to the Papacy ; faults and virtues of the Jesuits
in the i8th century.
The first attack on the Jesuits was directed by Pombal, who had be-
come chief minister of Portugal under King Joseph ; causes of Pom-
bal's hatred of the Jesuits ; they opposed his measures of reform ; they
monopolized what remained of Portuguese commerce with India, and
they fought against the cession of Paraguay to Portugal ; Pombal for-
bade the Jesuits to come to court without leave (1757) ; the Tavora
plot (1758) ; Pombal deported the Jesuits to Italy (1759), and confis-
cated all their property in Portugal ; Pope Clement XIII. defended the
Jesuits ; execution of Malagrida (1761).
The example of Pombal followed in other countries : (i) in France :
discredit caused by the failure of Jesuit traders; Choiseul was supported
by the Parlements, who remembered the persecution of the Jansenists ;
the Parlement of Paris condemned the constitutions of the Society
(1761) ; abolition of the Society in France by a royal edict (1764) ; (2)
in Spain : Charles III. banished the Jesuits from his kingdom (1767);
(3) in Italy: the Jesuits expelled from Naples (1767) and Parma (1768).
Pope Clement XIII. defended the Society of Jesus ; he attacked the
weakest of their opponents, excommunicated the Duke of Parma, and
The Suppression of the Jesuits. 1 17
declared the duchy confiscated (1768) ; the Catholic powers supported
Parma ; the French occupied Avignon, and the Neapolitans Bene-
vento and Ponte Corvo ; Spain, the Two Sicilies, France and Portugal
demanded the suppression of the Society of Jesus (Jan., 1769) ; death
of Pope Clement XIII. (3 Feb., 1769).
Election of Pope Clement XIV. — Ganganelli — (19 May, 1769) ; his
character and previous career ; pressed by Cardinal Bernis on the part
of France to suppress the Society of Jesus ; difficulties of his position ;
reconciled to Parma and Portugal ; the evacuation of Avignon and
Benevento ; eventually he issued a brief suppressing the Society of
Jesus (27 July, 1773).
Effect upon Europe of the overthrow of the Jesuits ; their suppression
typical of the changed attitude of the Catholic powers towards the Pope
and of the people towards the Catholic religion.
Attempts made to replace the Jesuits as a teaching organization ; the
Oratorians ; Catherine II. protected and encouraged the Jesuits in the
part of Poland which fell to her at the first partition ; the Society con-
tinued to exist in Russia and Prussia.
Death of Clement XIV. (22 Sept., 1774) ; election of Pius VI.^
Braschi (14 Feb., 1775).
Internal administration of the States of the Church under the Popes
of the 1 8th century ; condition of the Legations ; Rome became the
chief place of resort for wealthy travellers ; effect upon Protestant coun-
tries of the increased tolerance of the Papacy.
Improved personal character of the Popes in the i8th century: d^-jj^
crease of personal and family ambition ; disappearance oi^no^^o^smJt^^^'fi
Significance of the suppression of the Society of Jesus as a typical act "v
of the 1 8th century.
Authorities : For the suppression of the Jesuits see Crttineau-Joly, Histoire
religieuse, politique et litt^raire de la compagnie de J^sus, vols v., vi., and Le Pape
Clement XIV.; Senac de Meilhan, Histoire abreg^e de I'expulsion des J^suites;
Saint-Priest, Histoire de la chute des J^suites ; Masson, Le cardinal de Bernis
depuis son ministdre (1758-94); Theincr, Histoire du pontificat de Clement XIV.;
Von i?^ttWd?n/, Ganganelli, Papst Clemens XIV., seine Briefe und seine Zeit; Artaud^
Histoire de Pie VI., and Crousaz-Critet, L'EgUse et I'fetat (1715-89).
Ii8 The Tsar it sa Elizabeth.
LECTURE 42.
THE FIRST PARTITION OF POLAND.
The internal history of Russia from the death of Peter the Great :
formation of two opposing parties, of which one desired to continue the
progress in Western civilization commenced by Peter, and the other de-
sired to recur to the old Russian customs and system of government; the
Church, the nobles and the mass of the population favored throughout
the century a reaction against Peter's innovations ; it was due to the
personal character of successive rulers that Russia was further developed
on Western lines.
Both the Tsaritsa Anne (1730), and the Tsaritsa Elizabeth (1741),
were raised to the throne of Russia because they were believed to be in
sympathy with old Russian id^s, and it was expected that they would
leave the control of affairs to the Russian nobles, but both Tsaritsas,
when firmly established, carried on the system of Peter the Great in in-
ternal government.
Although the Russians disliked the Western system and the employ-
ment of foreigners introduced by Peter the Great, they enthusiastically
believed in his foreign policy and in the ideas he had formed for the
expansion of Russia ; the foreign policy of the government was popular
or unpopular in so far as it adhered to or departed from the lines laid
down by Peter the Great.
The foreign policy of t^e Tsaritsa Elizabeth (1741-62): influence of
La Chetardie, the French ambassador (1741-44); her alliance with
Maria Theresa (1746), to whom she sent an army (1748); her hatred
for Frederick the Great of Prussia; the director of her policy, the Chan-
cellor B^slJlS^v (1744-58): his Austrian sympathies; part of Russia
in the Seven Years' War; open partisanship of the Grand Duke Peter
for Frederick the Great, and of his wife the Grand Duchess Catherine
for England; overthrow of Bestushev (1758); the administration of the
Chancellor Vorontsov (1758-67).
The internal government of the Tsaritsa Elizabeth : her character
and her court ; her lovers ; Lestocq, Razumovski, Ivan Shuvalov;
intolerance and revival of religious persecution ; French took the
Poland in the i8th Century, 119
place of German influence at the Russian Court; the Grand Duchess
Catherine and the Shuvalovs and Vorontsovs ; Ivan vShuvalov founded
the University of Moscow (1755).
The Tsaritsa Elizabeth succeeded by her nephew, Peter III., Duke
of Holstein-Gottorp (5 Jan., 1762); unpopularity of Peter as a for-
eigner and adherent of foreign ideas ; Peter III. overthrown by his wife
Catherine (9 July, 1762).
Murder of Peter III. (17 July) ; the character of this revolution ;
character of Catherine (b. 1729) ; unsoundness of her title ; attempt to
bring forward the Tsar Ivan VI- from his prison (see p. 98); his
murder (16 July, 1764).
The Tsaritsa Catherine II. desired to emphasize her belief in the
policy of Peter the Great ; to satisfy the Old Russian party, she re-
solved to pursue an aggressive policy in Poland ; the popularity of this
policy in Russia ; Catherine showed her intention of interfering in Po-
lish afifairs by reinstating Biren in Courland (Jan., 1763); Charles of
Saxony, son of the King of Poland, who had been Duke of Courland
since 1758, forced to retire (27 Apr., 1763).
Attitude of Frederick the Great towards Poland :/^edesired to unite
Royal Prussia to his dominions ; this had been a keynote of Hohenzol-
lem policy since the proposal of Frederick I. to Peter the Great to dis-
member Poland ^fyirther, Frederick was afraid that Saxony and Poland
might be permanently united, and thus~cbunterbalance the power of
Prussia.
The attitude of Maria Theresa towards Poland : her determination
that Russia and Prussia should not divide Poland without giving her a
portion ; she was urged in this direction by her son Joseph II., who had
become Emperor in 1765.
Condition of Poland : its poverty and bad government under the
Saxon kings ; the Roman Catholic majority persecuted the Protestants
and the Greek Church ; non-Catholics excluded from sitting in the Diet
(1719), and from all political rights (1733).
The two parties in Poland : the Pro-Saxon and the Anti-Saxon par-
ties ; Louis XV. supported the Pro-Saxon party owing to the marriage
of the Dauphin to aSaxon orincess ; the candidature of Conti.
Death of Augustus II., King of Poland (5 Oct., 1763) : his death fol-
120 First Partition of Poland »
lowed by that of his eldest son (17 Dec, 1763) ; Frederick Augustus,
who succeeded as Elector of Saxony, was too young to obtain the
throne of Poland.
Election of Stanislas Poniatovski (b. 1732, d. '1798) as King of Po-
land (7 Sept., 1764), by the influence of Russia and Prussia ; Frederick
and Catherine had made a defensive alliance for this purpose, in which
they guaranteed the constitutions of Poland and Sweden (11 Apr.,
1764).
The reign of Stanislas Poniatovski : he endeavored in vain to per-
suade the Diet to revoke the decree of 1733, and to admit non-Catholics
to office (1766) ; the Confederation of Radom ; the reforms of 1768.:
Catherine declared her intention of maintaining the Polish constitutioqi.
Opposition to the interference of Russia : formation of the Confedera-
tion of Bar (28 Feb., 1769) ; Choiseul desired to support the Confedera-
tion of Bar, and incited the Turks to att£.ck Russia ; the Russians
marched against the Confederates of Bar ; resistance of Pulaski ; war
between the patriotic Poles and the Russians fighting in the name of
King Stanislas (1768-72) ; help sent by Choiseul ; the missions of
Taules (1768), Chateaufort (1769), Dumouriez (1770) and Viomesnil
(1771); attempt to carry off the King (Nov., 1771); the Confederation
of Bar overthrown by Russian, Prussian and Austrian troops.
The Russo-Turkish war ; the Turks declared war against Russia
(6 Oct., 1768); the Russians conquered Moldavia (1769); Wallachia
(1770); and the Crimea (1771); a Russian fleet under Alexis Orlov
sailed around into the Mediterranean and incited the Greeks to rebel ;
the Turkish fleet destroyed at Tchesme (7-8 July, 1770).
Frederick the Great proposed the partition of Poland ; his agreement
with the Emperor Joseph II. at Neiss (Aug., 1769); the proposition
made to the Tsaritsa Catherine.
The negotiations for the partition of Poland (1770-72); a final agree-
ment made by the Treaty of St. Petersbui«g (25 July, 1772); the Polish
Diet forced to consent to the partition treaty (18 Sept., 1773).
By the first partition of Poland : (i) Frederick received Royal Prussia,
with the exception of Dantzig and Thorn, thus cpinecting his eastern
dominions with Brandenburg ; (2) Maria Theresa received the county
of Zips, lyodomeria and Red Russia ; (3) Russia received Polish Livonia
Treaty of Kutschuk Kainardji, 121
and Lithuania to the east of the Dwina and the Dnieper ; while (4)
Stanislas Poniatovski remained ruler of the diminished central district
as King of Poland.
The respective advantages gained by the three powers in the first
partition of Poland.
Conclusion of the Russo-Turkish war: campaign of 1773; death of
the Sultan. Mustapha III. (25 Dec, 1773); campaign of 1774; victor-
ies of the Russians under Rumiantsov; Treaty of Kutschuk Kainardji
(21 July, 1774): the Russians restored Moldavia and Wallachia, but re-
tained Azov and Kinburn ; the Tartars of the Crimea declared inde-
^■^ent of Turkey; Russian ships allowed free passage through~lhe
j^^rdanelles and on the Danube ; Russia acknowledged as the protector
of the Danubian principalities ; the Austrians occupied the Bukovina,
which was ceded to them by the Turks (7 May, 1775).
Effect of the partition of Poland and of the Treaty of Kutschuk
Kainardji upon the position of the Tsaritsa Catherine II.
Authorities: The best small book on this subject is Sorei, La Question
d'Orient au XVIIIidme Siecle. The most important secondary works are
Karhf^ Les causes de la chute de la Pologne (Revue Historique, 1891); Saint-
Priest, ifetudes diplomatiques, vol. i., Partage de la Pologne; Herrmann, Die oes-
terreichisch-preussische AUianz und die TheilungPolens; Beer, Die erste Theilung
Polens, and Friedrich II. und Van Swieten ; De Smitt, Frederic II., Catherine et le
partage de la Pologne ; Michael, Englands Stellung zur ersten Theilung Polens ;
Von der Briiggen, Polens Auflosung ; Schlozer, Friedrich der Grosse und Kath-
arina die Zweite ; Janssen, Zur Genesis der ersten Theilung Polens ; Gross-
Hofinger, Die Theilung Polens ; Ropell, Polen um die Mitte des XVIII. Jahrhun-
derts ; Bfirral, ifetudes sur I'histoire diplomatique de I'Europe ; Bofineville de
Marsangy, Le Chevalier de Vergennes, son amhassade a Constantinople, and
Broglie, Le secret du Roi. The celebrated work of Rulhih'e, Histoire de I'anarchie
de Pologne et du demembrement de cette rdpublique, was left unfinished and only
goes to 1770; it was continued in much inferior style by Ferrand, Les trois de-
membrements de la Pologne. Among primary authorities see Stanislas
Poniatovski, M^moires secretes et intimes, and Correspon dance avec Madame
Geoffrin, ed. De Blotiy; Viomesnil, Lettres particulieres sur les affaires de Pologne
(1771-2), ed. Grimoar^^umouriez, M^moires, and Angeberg, Recueil des trait^s,
conventions, et actes ^H|catiques concernant la Pologne ( 1762-1S62), in addition
to the documents in th^Bfciik and the Politische Korrespondenz Friedrich's des
Grossen.
122 The War of American Independence.
LECTURE 43.
THE WAR OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE.
Interest taken it? Europe in the struggle of the American colonists for
independence: unpopularity of England on the Continent; France and
Spain desired to revenge themselves for the humiliations of the Seven
Years' War and the Peace of Paris ; Austria v^^as bound to France by
the treaty of 1756; Frederick the 'Great of Prussia was disgusted by the
way in which he had been deserted by England after the fall of Pitt ;
Catherine of Russia was jealous of the commercial pretensions of EMt
land; the republican party in the Protestant Netherlands, in its oppHp
tion to the House of Orange and to England, desired to help the
American colonists.
Enthusiasm in France for the cause of American liberty: La Fayette
and other volunteers joined Washington (1777); Verg;ennes, Minister of
Foreign Affairs in France from 1774, took advantage of this enthusiasm
against England; treaty of alliance signed between France and the
United States (6 Feb., 1778); Turgot and Necker opposed to war for
financial reasons; neglect of the effect which assistance to a republican
movement might have in France itself; commencement of war between
England and France (June, 1778).
Spain commenced war against England (June, 1779); causes for this
action; influence of the Pacte de Famille.
The position in the United Provinces : war declared by England
against the Dutch (20 Dec, 1780).
Attitude of the Tsaritsa Catherine: formation of the Armed Neu-
trality or Neutral League of the North ; Catherine's declaration (9
Mar., 1280) acceded to by Denmark (9 July 1780), Sweden (i Aug.,.
1780), the Dutch (4 Jan., 1781), ,£russia^i9 May, 1781), Austria (9
Oct., i78i),"PQ^gal (24 July, 1782), and the Two Sicilies (21 Feb.,
1783).
Complete isolation of England during the War of American Inde-
pendence; her internal troubles ; weakness o^^^overnment; danger
threatened in Ireland ; England's fall from iWPeat position she had
occupied during the ministry of Pitt ; England's only resources her
The War of Americajt Indepeyidence, 123
naval eflficiency and wealth ; her naval supremacy threatened by the
new French and Spanish navies created by Choiseul and Sartine, by
ArandaandX)'Reilly.
England's efforts to extend the war against France to Europe, in con-
nection with the question of the Bavarian Succession, frustrated by the
policy of Vergennes and the Treaty of Teschen (13 May, 1779).
Owing to the absence of a base of operations on the Continent, the
war was essentially naval.
Campaign of 1778: the battle off Ushant between Keppel and D'Or-
villiers (27 July); a French fleet under D'Estaing came to the help of
the American colonists; Bouille took Dominica (8 Sept.); the English
took Saint Lucia (14 Dec.) and Pondicherry (17 Oct.).
Campaign of 1779: Spain commenced war and a French and Spanish
army and fleet laid siege to Gibraltar ; Eliott's defence of Gibraltar ;
D'Estaing took Saint Vincent (19 June) and Grenada (4 July); defeated
in an attack on Savannah (9 Oct.); D'Orvilliers with a French and
Spanish fleet commanded the Channel, but failed to effect a landing in
England; failure of Nassau-Siegen's expedition against Jersey (i May);
the French took Senegal (30 Jan. -6 Mar.), and the English took Goree,
on the west coast of Africa; the English took Mahe, in India.
Campaign of 1780: Rodney relieved Gibraltar and defeated the Span-
iards off Cape Saint Vincent (16 Jan.); Rochambeau arrived in America
with a French army; naval battles in the West Indies between De
Guichen and Rodney (17 April, 15, 19 May); Haidar Ali overran the
Presidency of Madras and asked for French help.
Campaign of 1781: Rodney took Saint Eustatia (3 Feb.); Bouille took
Tobago (2 June); DeGrasse by sea and Rochambeau on land cooperated
with Washington in forcing the surrender of Cornwallis at York town
(19 Oct.); battle between the English and Dutch off the Doggerbank
(5 Aug.); Bouille took Saint Eustatia (26 Nov.); defeat of Haidar Ali
by Eyre Coote at Porto Novo (7 July).
Campaign of 1782: the Spaniards took Minorca (5 Feb.); Bouill6
took Saint Kitts (12 Feb.); Rodney (b. 1717, d. 1792) won a great vic-
tory over De Grasse (12 Apr.); Howe relieved Gibraltar (18 Oct.);
series of battles between De Suffren and Hughes off the coast of India;
Bussy took command of a French force in India; death of Haidar Ali
(7 Dec).
124 The Treaty of Versailles.
General weariness of the war: retirement of Lord North (20 March,
1782); the i^ew English ministry resolved to recognize the independ-
ence of the American colonies; preliminaries of peace signed with the
United States (30 Nov., 1782), with France and Spain (20 Jan. :^3);
signature of the Treaty of Versailles (3 Se^tj,^83), accepted later by
the Dutch.
Terms of the Treaty of Versailles : England recognized the inde-
pendence of the United States, restored Minorca and Florida to Spain,
and ceded Tobago and Saint Lucia, Senegal and Goree, to France; the
status quo ante bellum restored in India, except that England obtained
Negapatam from the Dutch.
Results of the War of American Independence : weakening of Eng-
land by her colonial losses and the belief that her naval supremacy had
gone forever ; increase in the confusion of the finances of France ;
spread of a current of opinion favorable to self-government and opposed
to monarchy.
Foreign policy of the younger Pitt, who had become Prime Minister
of England in 1784, during the first years of his administration.
Authorities : Stevens, Facsimiles of Manuscripts in European Archives; the
Diplomatic Correspondence of the American Revolution ed. Wharton; Franklin,
Works ; Adams, Works ; Lecky, History of England in the iSth Century; Mahan,
Influence of Sea Power in History; Doniol, Histoire de la participation de la
France ^ la liberation des Eitats-TJnis d'Amdrique ; Batchy Les Fran9ais en
Am^rique pendant la guerre de I'independance des ifetats-Unis ; Chevalier^
Histoire de la marine fran5aise pendant la guerre de I'independance americaine ;
Fauchille, La diplomatie fran^aise et la ligue des neutres de 1780 ; Ber^bohm,
Die bewafifnete Neutralitat (1780-3); Andrews, History of the War with America,
France, Spain and Holland, in 1775-83 ; Mundy, Life of George, Lord Rodney;
Drinkwater, The Three Sieges of Gibraltar ; Sayer, History of Gibraltar, and
Malleson, Final French Struggles in India.
LECTURE 44.
FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XVL
Character of Louis XVI. (b. 1754): his attitude towards measures of
internal reform ; his interest in naval affairs ; his attitude towards for-
The Policy of Vergermes. 125
eign politics ; his personal relations with the Emperor Joseph ; Marie
Antoinette (b. 1755); her influence in internal and foreign politics.
Maurepas (b. 1701), Chief Minister (1774-81) ; his character and
career; recall of the Parleraents (12 Nov., 1774) ; the colleagues of
Maurepas; Vergennes (1774-87), Foreign Affairs ; Turgot (1774-76),
Necker (1776-81), Finances; Saint-Germain (1775-77), M9pthflrrev
(1777-80), Marechal deS^g^ur 1 1780-87). War; Sartine (1774-80), Cas-
tries (1780-87)7 Marine.
The administration of the army : reforms of Saint-Germain ; writings
of Guibert ; improvements in organization ; the military schools ; or-
ganization of the artillery by Gribeauval ; formation of the general
stafif(i783); decree of 22 May, 1781, excluding all but nobles from
commissions in the army.
The administration of the navy : the vigor of Sartine in ship build-
ing ; foundation of Cherbourg (1779) ; the regulations of Castries.
The foreip;n policy of Vergennes (b. 17 17) : his attitude towards /
the Spanish and the Austrian alliances.
Vergennes and the smaller states of Europe : Vergennes and Sweden ;
Vergennes and Italy ; Vergennes and the Turks ; embassies of Saint-
Priest (1768-84), and of Choiseul-Gouflfier (1784-92) ; the treaty of 1779
by which the Turks gave free navigation in the Black Sea to the
Russians, and the Convention of 1784 by which they recognized the .
annexation of the Crimea to Russia. •
Vergennes and Russia : joint mediation for the Treaty of T^grh^n
(1779) ; the Armed Neutrality (1780") ; visit of the Grand Duke Paul to
Paris (1782) ; the embassy of Segur (1784-89) ; the commercial
treaty of 1787 ; Vergennes' attitude towards Joseph II. and Frederick
the Great.
The part taken by France against England during the War of Amer-
ican Independence ; Vergennes induced Spain to commence war against
England; gains made by France by the Treaty of Versailles (1783);
conclusion of a commercial treaty between England and France (1786).
Vergennes and the Dutch : his intervention in the dispute between
Joseph II. and United Provinces ; by his mediation the Treaty of
Fontainebleau was signed (10 Nov., 1875); his attitude in the troubles
between the Stadtholder and " the Patriots."
126 Turgot and Necker,
Death of Vergennes (13 Feb. 1787); ability shown bv Verg^ennes. in
rnnrrnjjji^; the rrni wrnVnrnn of Frnnnr ; v^ergennes succeeded as Min-
ister for Foreign Affairs by Montmorin.
Internal administration during the reign of Louis XVI. : influence of
the Court; p^^-tnrrnr^nri" fif Mnrir Antoinette: her unpopularity at
Court and among the people.
The reforms of Turcot /b. 1727, d. 1781): his previous career and eco-
nomic ideas ; his attempts to reform the financial administration ; op-
position to his schemes; he established internal f|-pf^ traHf^ in grain (13
Sept., 1774), and attacked all restrictions on freedom of labor and free-
dom of trade ; his decrees replacing the corvee, or forced labor on the
roads, by a tax and abolishing guilds passed in spite of the opposition
of the Patlement of Paris (12 March, 1776); his desire to oyerthrow the
relics of feudalism and to improve agriculture^ his scheme of national
education ; tHe"°work of Malesherbes (1775-76); dismissal of Turgot
(13 May, 1776).
The financial administration of Necker (b. 1732, d. 1804): his endea-
vors to dra3aiLlipAinlance...shaQt>4^~^aace ; his financial methods and
proposed reforms ; excitement caused by the publication of the Compte
Rendu; dismissal of Necker (19 May, 1781).
Attempt at improving local administration ; formation of Eroiiincial
Assemblies for Berrv (1778), Upper Guienne (1779) and the Bourbon-
nais(i78o).
The financial administrations of Joly de Fleury and D'Ormesson
(1781-83).
The financial administration of Calonne (b. 1734, d. 1802): his sys-
tem of loans ; his propositions for increased taxation ; increase of the^
deficit; convocation of the Assembly of Notables (1787); first mention
of summoning a States- General; dismissal of Calonne (8 April, 1787).
Administration of Lomenie de Brienne fb. 1727, d. 1794): his
struggle with the Parlements ; his measures of reform ; excitement in
France at the exile of the Parlements; the Assembly at Vizille (21
July, 1788); promise of a speedy convocation of the States- General;
dismissal of Lomenie de Brienne (25 Aug., 1788).
Qor^j^^^ o^miticfrafinn nf Mpp1?pf his preparations for the elections-to
the States- General; second meeting of the Notables (Nov., 1788).
France u?ider Louis XVI. 127
Attitude of the King, Queen and the Court during these years; grow-
ing unpopularity of the Queen ; the affair of the Diamond Necklace
(1784-85).
Tt]creasing demand fr>r rpfnrm in Pranrp- general desirc to remodel
the administrative system and submit it to some degree of popular con-
trol ; the ^anrial rnnrlitinn preHpitnted a politioal ypsis- the King
and his ministers looked upon the States-General as a financial expe-
dient; the people, as the commencement of political and administrative
r^orm.
Position of France at home and abroad on the eve of the French
Revolution.
Authorities : Most histories of the French Revolution begin with a sketch of
the reign of Louis XVI. and all studies of the causes of the French Revolution
and accounts of the Ancien Regime describe the condition of France during his
reign. Of general secondary works, reference may be made to Jobez^ La
France sous Louis XVI.; Droz, Histoire du regne de Louis XVI.; Chtrest, La
chute de I'ancien regime ; Tratchevsky, La France et TAllemagne sous Louis
XVI., and Tocqueville, Coup d'oeil sur le r^gne de Louis XVI. Of a more special
character are: Correspondance secrete entre Marie Th^rese et Mercy-Argenteau, ed.
Ameth and Geffroy ; Mention, Le comte de Saint-Germain et ses rdformes ;
Barral-Mont/errat, Dix ans de paix arm^e cntre la France et I'Angleterre (1783-93);
Segur-Diipeyron, Histoire des negociations commerciales et maritimes de la France,
vol. iii ; Lord Auckland, Journal and Correspondence ; Foncin, Essai sur le minis-
t^re de Turgot ; Neymarck, Turgot et ses doctrines ; Tissot, Etude sur Turgot ;
Condorcet, Vie de Turgot ; Necker, CBuvres ; Lavergne, Les Assemblees provin-
ciales sous Louis XVL, and Lominie, Beaumarchais et sou temps ; La Rocheterie,
Histoire de Marie Antoinette ; Campardon, Marie Antoinette et le proc^ du collier ;
Renke, Louis XVL et sa cour ; Louis XVL, Journal, ed. Nicolardot, and Lanzac
de Laborie, Jean Jacques Mounier. Among primary authorities see the
Memoires of Besenval, Weber, Augeard, Madame Campan, Montbarrey, Sigur
an^ Th iiba7ilt, dindi the Souvenirs of D' Hezecques.
LECTURE 45.
Prussia under Frederick the great.
Ruined condition of the dominions of Frederick the Great after the
close of the Seven Years' War.
128 Frederick the Great.
The internal administration of Frederick: his measures for restoring
prosperity ; paternal government ; Frederick's attitude towards agri-
culture, manufactures and commerce ; his attempt to improve farming;
distribution of seeds and introduction of the potato ; his encouragement
of colonists ; establishment of ' ' land-banks ' ' ; his East India Com-
pany ; Frederick regarded the material prosperity of his people as the
chief end of the administration.
Frederick's conception of monarchy : his understanding of the
" Aufgeklarte Despotismus " ; he held that his absolutism could be
justified only by earnest work for the good of his people.
The administrative machinery created by Frederick the Great : fol-
lowing his father's example, he confided the administration to a bureau-
cracy composed of men of the middle class and dependent entirely upon
himself; comparison between the French and the Prussian bureau-
cracies : the former hindered, while the latter promoted, general pros-
perity at the close of the i8th century, because Prussia was more back-
ward in civilization than France.
Frederick the Great's attitude towards his nobility : he employed no-
bles in the army rather than in the civil service, and formed them into
a military caste.
Frederick the Great and serfdom : he maintained the authority of the
nobles upon their estates as part of the compensation for excluding them
from political power and as an inducement to them to continue their
services in the army ; but he endeavored to abolish or reduce the harsh-
ness of serfdom on the royal domains.
Frederick the Great and the Prussian army : he perceived that the
very existence of Prussia depended upon the efiiciency of the army ; he
therefore devoted his attention to the maintenance of a standing army
of 200,000 men, a force disproportionate to the size and population of his
dominions ; the excellence and the weakness of the Prussian army dur-
ing the latter years of Frederick's reign ; his camps of exercise ; perfec-
tion of drill and discipline maintained in the Prussian army ; Frederick's
system imitated in other countries.
Admiration felt in Germany for the administrative and military sys-
tem of Frederick the Great ; he was thus enabled to draw upon the
whole of Germany for able servants, and the Prussian idea of govern-
ment penetrated beyond the borders of Prussia.
Frederick the Great. 129
Contrast between the absolutism of Louis XIV. of France and of
Frederick the Great of Prussia : Louis X^Vj. said, "I am the State ";
Frederick the Great said, " I am the first servant of the State".
Frederick the Great considered as a typical enlightened despot of the
i8th century: (i) his great public works, as the making of canals and
roads, the draining of marshes and the improvement of Berlin ; (2) his
endeavors to simplify and codify the system of laws in the Codex Fre-
dericiana, the work of the Chancellor Cocceji ; (3) he discouraged all
idea of local or municipal self-government ; (4) he insisted upon abso-
lute toleration of religious worship while ready to pose as the protector
of Protestantism ; (5) he established a system of compulsory primary-
education.
Frederick the Great differed from the other enlightened despots in his
neglect of national higher education and in his refusal to adopt sound
economic ideas in collecting his revenue ; no general advance in intel-
lectual development or in material prosperity is therefore to be per-
ceived during his reign.
The foreign policy of Frederick the Great may be considered as national
and as German ; after the close of the Seven Years' War he abandoned*
all hope of a close alliance with England and entered into intimate re-
lations with Catherine II. of Russia ; with her help he carried out the
first partition of Poland, and thus united Prussia with Brandenburg
territorially; close alliance with Russia the keynote of Frederick the
Great's later national policy ; Frederick the Great joined the Armed
Neutrality started by the Tsaritsa Catherine against England ( 1781).
Frederick the Great's German policy : his relations with Maria
Theresa and the Emperor Joseph II. ; the War of the Bavarian Succes-
sion, or " Potato War "; on the death of Maximilian Joseph, Elector of
Bavaria (30 Dec, 1777), the succession passed to the Elector Palatine,
Charles Theodore, who was induced to cede eastern Bavaria to Austria
in return for a guarantee of the rest ; Frederick the Great intervened,
basing his interference on the rights of the Princes of the Empire ; a
Prussian army invaded Bohemia (1778), but no battle took place ;
France, engaged in the War of American Independence against Eng-
land, declined to interfere to help Austria, and eventually, under the
mediation of France and Russia, the Bavarian question was settled by
the Treaty of Teschen (13 May, 1779).
130 Frederick the Great.
By the Treaty of Teschen, Charles, Duke of Zweibriicken, or Deux-
Ponts, was recognized as heir to both the electorates of the childless
Charles Theodore ; Austria received the district between Passau and
Salzburg, called " the Quarter of the Inn "; the Elector of Saxony was
was given 6,000,000 florins ; while Frederick the Great was guaranteed
the succession to Anspach and Baireuth.
The schemes of Joseph II. upon Bavaria induced Fre -erick the Great
at the close of his reign oncg more to stand forth as defender of the
rights of the Empire ; Joseph II. proposed to cede the Catholic Nether-
lands to Charles Theodore in exchange for Bavaria ; to thwart this
scheme Frederick the Great in 1785 formed the Fiirstenbund, or League
of Princes, for the maintenance of the constitution of the Empire as
established by the Treaties of Westphalia ; Joseph II. forced to abandon
his scheme.
Death of Frederick the Great (17 Aug., 1786).
Extension of the Hohenzollern dominions during his reign ; annexa-
tion of Silesia (1742) ; succession to East Friesland (1744) under a grant
of the Emperor Joseph I. to Frederick I., and acquirement of Royal
Prussia at the first partition of Poland (1773).
Increase of the power of Prussia during his reign ; Prussia ceased to
be merely a German state and became an European power.
Prussia was, after the battle of Rossbach, the state to which be-
lievers in the unity of Germany looked for inspiration and guidance.
Character of Frederick the Great : he was the typical monarch of the
i8th as Louis XIV. was of the 17th century.
Authorities: For the internal development of Prussia during the reign of
Frederick the Great, see the general works by Berner, Stenzel, Droysen, Ranke^
Philippson and Cavaignac, cited under Lecture 36, with the special works on
Frederick by Koser and others, cited under Lectures yj, 38, 39 and 41, and
Oncken, Das Zeitalter Friedrichs des Grossen ; Lavisse, :fetudes sur I'histoire de
?russe ; Reimann, Abhandlungen zur Geschichte Friedrichs des Grossen. On his
idministration see Bornhak, Isaacsohn, Stadelmaun, vol. ii, cited under Lecture
36 ; Griinhagen, Schlesien unter Friedrich den Grossen ; Grilnberg^ Die Bauernbe-
freiung in Bohmen, Mahren, und Schlesien ; Bornhak, Die Bauernbefreiung und
die Gutsherrlichkeit in Preussen ; Knapp, Die Bauernbefreiung und der Ursprnng
der Landarbeiter in den alteren Theilen Preussens : Trendelenburg, Friedrich der
Grosse und sein Grosskanzler Samuel vonCocceji; Holtze, Geschichte des Kammer-
Catherine the Great, 131
\
gerichts in Brandenburg-Preussen, and Ring, Asiatische Handlungscompagnien
Friedrichs des Grossen. The primary authorities are Frederick's own Worka,
his Politische Korrespondenz, ed. Koser, etc., and the State Papers published by
the Prussian government. For his latter years see Reimantiy Gcschichte des
Bairischen Erbfolgekrieges ; Beer, Zur Geschichte des Bairischen Erbfolgekrieges
(Historische Zeitschrift, vol. xxxv.); Saint-Priest, ifetudes diplomatiques, vol. i.
Le Congr^s de Teschen ; Taysen, Die militarische Thatigkeit Friedrichs des Gros-
sen wahrend seines letzten Lebensjahres ; Ranke, Die Deutschen Miichte und der
Fiirstenbund (in his Werke, vols, xxxi, xxxii); G. IVoif, CEsterreich und Preussen,
1780-90 ; Schmidt, Geschichte der Preussisch-Deutschen Unionsbestrebungen ;
Erdmannsdorffer, Aus den Zeiten des Deutschen Fiirstenbundes, and C. W. von
Dohm, DenkwUrdigkeiten, and Uber den Deutschen Fiirstenbund. For his per-
sonality, see in addition to Carlyle, History of Frederick the Great ; Lavisse, La
jeunesse du grand Fr6d^ric, and Le grand Frederic avant I'av^nement ; Rigollot^
Fr^d^ric II., philosophe ; Zeller, Friedrich der Grosse als Philosoph ; Cauer,
Friedrichs des Grossen Gedanken liber die furstliche Gewalt ; Thiebault, Mes
souvenirs de vingt ans de s6jour a Berlin ; Margravine of Baireuth, Memoirs ;
Pollniiz, Memoirs ; De Catt, Memoiren, ed. Koser, and Desnoiresterres, Voltaire et
Fr^ddric II. For a contemporary account of the actual condition of Prussia and
the working of the government, see Mirabeau ( and Mauvillon), Dela Monarchic
prussienne sous Frederic le Grand.
LECTURE 46.
RUSSIA UNDER CATHERINE THE GREAT.
Catherine the Great's administration of the Russian Empire : she fol-
lowed the ideas of Peter the Great in ruling through a bureaucratic sj'S*
tem entirely dependent upon the will of the ruler and consisting chiefly
of foreigners, but she preserved the attachment of the Russian people
by meeting the national wishes for territorial expansion.
Catherine summoned an assembly from all parts and all classes of the
Empire to draw up a code of laws (1766-68), but Russia was not suflS-
ciently advanced in civilization for such a benefit.
Catherine's reforms in internal administration : the Empire divided
into forty-four governments, in the place of the eight of Peter the
132 Catherine the Great.
Great ; subdivision into districts ; the assemblies of the nobility ; lib-
eral treatment of the towns, which were given muncipal independence ;
formation of courts of justice for the nobles, the bourgeois and the free
peasants in each district and government, with final appeal to the Sen-
ate ; resumption of the lands and serfs of the Church, the profits from
which, after paym^fit^'The^monks, were used for educational and
charitable purposes ; general religious tolerance shown even to Muham-
madans and Jesuits.
Catherine's great public works : she made canals and improved agri-
culture and means of communication ; she encouraged commerce and
manufactures ; her commercial treaties with England and France ;
establishment of German colonies ; foundation of new cities.
Catherine and the intellectual development of Russia : she founded
the Russian Acadv:imy (1783) and encouraged foreigners to visit and
describe her country ; like Frederick the Great, she kept in touch with
the intellectual movement of Western Europe ; her friendship with
Diderot and correspondence With Grimm.
Attitude of Catherine towards serfdom : she endeavored to regulate
but not abolish it ; she forbade the public sale of serfs or the separation
of families ; the case of Daria Soltikov.
Catherine's method of government : she kept the direction of affairs
in her own hands ; her diligence and insight ; her attitude towards her
ministers and her lovers.
Catherine and her Court : she made use of her discarded lovers in
the management of affairs ; the importance of the Orlovs (1762-72), and
of Potemkin (1774-76) ; her wisdom in selecting her lovers from among
the Russians and not from foreigners ; her last lover, Zubov (1789-96).
Catherine's zeal in carrying out the plans of Peter the Great and in
fulfilling the ambitions of the Russian people in foreign politics kept
the Russians, and even the members of the Old Russian party, faithful
to her in spite of her being a German and of her maintenance of West-
ern ideas ; her adherence to Russian ideals necessary for the mainten-
ance of her power.
The foreign policy of Catherine the Great (1762-80) marked by alli-
ances with England and Prussia ; treaty of commerce with England
(1766) ; the administration of Panin ; the partition of Poland (1773),
Catherine the Great. 133
and first Turkish war (1768-74) ; Catherine remained on good terms
with Frederick the Great, and expected the assistance of Prussia in the
further partition of Poland, but she began to look to Austria for as-
sistance in the final overthrow of the Turks.
Catherine and Germany : first interference of Russia in a purely Ger-
man matter at the time of the War of the Bavarian Succession (1778) ;
Catherine declared for the maintenance of the rights of the Princes of
the Empire ; her joint mediation with France brought about the Treaty
of Teschen (13 May, 1779).
Catherine's change of attitude towards England and France ; the
Armed Neutrality (1780) ; administration of foreign affairs entrusted to
Bezborodko (1781) ; the embassy of Segur (1784-89) ; treaty of com-
merce with France (1787).
Catherine and Joseph II. : the interview at Mohilev (May, 1780);
Catherine, believing the Turkish question more pressing than the Po-
lish question, entered into a close alliance with Austria ; Joseph II.
agreed, in the hope of separating Russia from Prussia ; gradual alien-
ation of Catherine from Prussia ; effect of the death of Frederick the
Great (1786).
The policy of Potemkin (b. 1736, d. 1791): after being the lover of
Catherine from 1774 to 1776, he became her chief executive agent and
practically independent ruler of southern Russia; he desired to overthrow
the Turks and conquer Constantinople ; the Turks, by the intervention
of Vergennes, permitted the Russians free navigation in the Black Sea
(1779).
Potemkin put down the rising of Cossacks and Tartars under
Pugatchev (1774), and in 1783 conquered the Crimea, which had been
declared an independent state by the Treaty of Kutschuk Kainardji ;
the annexation of the Crimea to Russia recognized by the Turkish Sul-
tan, through the influence of the French ambassador at Constantinople
(11 Jan. 1784); Catherine's famous journey to the Crimea (1787);
Catherine proposed a Quadruple Alliance of Russia, Austria, France
and Spain. ^ "" '
The Turks declared war against Russia (16 Aug., 1787); Joseph II.
came to the help of Russia (9 Feb., 1788).
Campaign of 1787 : Suvorov (b. 1729, d. 1800) repulsed the Turkish
attack on the Crimea. v^.^*^
1^4 The Russo-Turkish War^ iy8j-g^.
Campaign of 1788 : the Austrians under Loudon took Dubitza and
Novi-Bazar (3 Oct.), and under Coburg, with the help of the Russians,
occupied Moldavia and took Choczim (19 Sept); defeat and flight of
the Austrian army commanded by the Kmperor Joseph (14, 20 Sept.);
the Russians under Potemkin and Suvorov stormed Ochakov (17 Dec);
Pitt prepared an English fleet ; Gustavus III. of Sweden declared war
against Russia and invaded Russian Finland (July).
Campaign of 1789 : death of the Sultan Abdul Hamid I. and acces-
sion of Selim III. (7 Apr.); the Turks defeated by the Austrians and
Russians under Coburg and Suvorov at Foksany (i August) and on
the Rymnik (22 Sept.); the Austrians under Loudon took Belgrade
(9 Oct.) and under Coburg took Bucharest; the Russians under Po-
temkin defeated the Turks at Tobac and took Bender (14 Nov.); the
Russian fleet under Nassau- Siege^defeated the Swedes (24 Aug.).
Campaign of 1790 : Clerfayi took Orsova (16 Apr.) and defeated the
Turks at Kalafat (26 June); armistice was made between the Austrians
and Turks at Giurgevo (19 Sept.); the Russian fleet defeated by the
Swedes at Svenska Sound (28 June), and the Treaty of Verela signed
betw^een Sweden and Russia (14 Aug.); the Russians under Suvorov
stormed Ismail (22 Dec).
Campaign of 1791 : the Austrians made peace with the Turks at
Sistova (4 Aug.); Catherine continued the war alone; the Russians
under Repnin defeated the Turks at Matchin (9 July); negotiations
for peace ; death of Potemkin (16 Oct., 1791).
By the Treaty of Jassy (9 Jan., 1792), peace was made between
Russia and the Turks, by which Russia retained Ochakov and the
coast line between the mouths of the Bug and the JQniester;-
Political history of the war with the Turks ; the Swedish war ; the
\^ attitude of Frederick William II. of Prussia, and of England under Pitt;
^^' the ' ' Russian Armament ' ' ; change in the position of affairs caused by
the deatK^f Joseph II. and the accession of Leopold II. (1790) ; Cath-
erine made peace with the Turks in order to have her bands frpe to deal
with Poland. -> v^-^ V -- ^Av-- ^^ 7.^^^^^:'^^(^'^.>x.-^
Importance of Catherine's foreign policy in maintaining her position
in Russia ; she brought Russia forward more prominently as a Euro-
pean power ; changing phases of the Eastern question.
Maria Theresa. 135
Catherine's claim to be considered one of the typical enlightened des-
pots of the i8th century ; her difficulties and advantages.
Authorities : For short accounts of the reign of Catherine s^^Morfill, Story of
Russia, and Rambaud, Histoire de la Russie, translated by Lang ; and, for a lively
account of her personality and life, IValiszewski, Le roman d'une iraperatrice, and
Autour d'un trone. A good small book in English is Spalding; Suv6roflF.
Among secondary works should be noticed, in addition to those cited under
Lecture 41, Bruckner^ Katharina die Zweite ; Bilbassoff, Geschichte Katharina
II., and Herrmann, Geschichte des russischen Staates; also D' Aragon, Le Prince
Charles de Nassau-Siegen (1784-89). Of primary author itieSy Sigur, Md-
moires ; Malmcsbiiry, Diaries and Correspondence ; Ameth, Joseph II. und Kath-
arina von Russland : ihr Briefwechsel ; Catherine^ Correspondance avec Grimm,
are most accessible ; Beer, Die oiientalische Politik CBsterreichs seit 1774, analyzes
the policy of Austria during the latter part of Catherine's reign, and the Turkish
side can be read in Von Hammer, Histoire de I'empire ottoman, and Zinkeisen^
Geschichte des osmanischen Reichs. The documents relating to the reign of
Catherine, published in the Sbornik, are numerous and important, and a full bibli-
ography of works on the period is contained in Bilbassoff^ Katharina II., Kaiserin
vou Russland, im Urtheile der Weltliteratur, 2 vols.
LECTURE 47. -^^^ ao
THE EMPEROR JOSEPH IL
The administration of the Austrian dominions under Maria Theresa :
her maintenance and even encouragement of local liberties and local
self-government so long as they did not interfere with the ascendancy
of 4:he Catholic Church ; for this reason the Catholic Netherlands and
the Milanese were given greater independence than Bohemia, where
Czech ideas were identified with Protestantism; contentment of the scat-
tered provinces of the House of Hapsburg under the rule of Maria
Theresa ; personal admiration and enthusiasm felt for her character ;
attempt to substitute dynastic for national loyalty. f
The conservatism of Maria Theresa in administration : progress of
centralization ; her husband, the Emperor Francis, aided by Kinsky,
Chotek and Haugwitz, regulated the finances; abolition of exemptions
136 Ma via Theresa .
from taxation; Kaunitz managed foreign affairs; organization and en-
couragement of education; improvement of the condition of the serfs
on the royal domain; attempt made to codify the laws; encouragement
of foreign commerce; revival of the Ostend Company with Trieste for
its headquarters (1759).
Foreign policy of Maria Theresa: her hatred of Frederick the Great;
the Austro- French alliance ; its results for Austria; her share in the
partition of Poland; her Italian policy; she made use of her family to
support Austrian influence abroad; thus her second son, lyCOpold, be-
came Grand Duke of Tuscany; the third, Ferdinand, Governor-General
of lyombardy and by marriage heir to the duchy of Modena; the fourth,
Maximilian Elector- Archbishop of Cologne; while of her daughters
Maria Carolina married Ferdinand IV., King of Naples and Sicily;
Maria Amelia, Don Ferdinand IV., Duke of Parma; Marie Antoinette,
Louis XVI. of France ; and Maria Christina, Albert, Duke of Saxe-
Teschen, third son of Augustus II. of Saxony and Poland, through
whom she governed the Austrian Netherlands. (See Appendix VII.)
On the death of the Emperor Francis I. (18 Aug., 1765) his eldest
son, Joseph II., was elected Emperor, while his second son, the Arch-
duke Leopold, succeeded him as Grand Duke of Tuscany.
Character and training of Joseph II. : for fifteen years he held the posi-
tion of Emperor without being ruler of the Austrian dominions ; diffi-
culties of this position ; his endeavors to make the power of the
Emperor more of a reality ; his interference in foreign affairs ; his
admiration for Frederick the Great followed by a still greater admira-
tion for the Tsaritsa Catherine ; his share in the first partition of Po-
land and in the War of the Bavarian Succession.
Death of Maria Theresa (29 Nov., 1780) and accession of Joseph II.
to the Austrian dominions.
The Emperor Joseph II. in many wnys the most typical of the en-
lightened despots ; his personality ; his ardent desire to improve the
condition of his people ; the three vices which led to the failure of his
schemes for reform : (i) his desire to do every thing yi7r the people and
not by the people ; (2) his wish to weld the Austrian dominions into a
homogeneous realm like France, or an administrative entity like Prussia
and Russia ; (3) the rapidity with which he forced his reforms on the
people without any preparation.
Joseph II. IT,']
Joseph II. 's national reforms : his attempts to unify and centralize
the administration ; he made German the official language in the home
dominions of the House of Hapsburg ; he endeavored to destroy all local
franchises and to establish the same system throughout his dominions ;
his efforts for administrative and judicial unity and regularity ; he
divided his dominions into thirteen governments, subdivided into cir-
cles ; in each government he established a court of justice with two
chambers, one for the nobility and one for the bourgeoisie ; in each
circle there was appointed an official to execute justice and protect the
peasants.
Joseph II. 's religious reforms : he issued an edict of toleration, per-
mitting freedom of thought and worship (1781) ; the visitjof Pope Pius
VI. to Vienna (1782) ; Joseph II. suppressed numerous convents and
religioiis^rders, and endeavored to reform the administration of the
Church ; he freed the Jews from their disabilities and permitted them to
enter the army ; he endeavored to make education secular and to take
it out of the hands of the Church. 1 *" 'ru^ ^ 2. *-v-t. ^ i «-trv« >v^v>^ ^
Joseph II. 's attack upon infringements of personal liberty : he abol-
ished serfdom in Bohemia (1781), in Carinthia, Carniola and the Breis-
gau (1782), and in Hungary (22 Aug., 1785), and inaugurated a system
for removing feudal burdens and forced labor ; he abolished all guilds —
and corporations interfering with freedom of labor.
Joseph II. 's efforts to improve the intellectual condition of his peo-
ple : he established a system of primary education and freed the press
from the censorship (178 1).
Joseph II. 's encouragement of public works and improvement of
means of communication." T c-v>. y •-— ^^ '*-'*-~^—
Joseph II. 's encouragement of trade and commerce : his endeavors to
obtain from the Dutch the freedom of the River Scheldt.
Joseph II.'s fiscal reforms : his endeavors to introduce the physiocratic
principles of taxation. ^ lAA vx*>^b^v>v^6^W*
The result of Joseph 11.^ reforms was to rouse discontent and even
rebellion throughout his dominions ; che Hungarian magnates were dis-
gusted at his freeing the serfs and all the Magyars at his attempts at
Germanization ; the Czechs in Bohemia Avere apprehensive that his re-
forms would crush them further ; the Tyrolese were in a ferment at his
138 Joseph II.
measures against the Church, and the Belgians were forced into open
rebellion, both by his interference with their local government and by
his measures against the Catholic Church.
In spite of the seething discontent in his own doinmions, Joseph II.
pursued an active German and foreign policy.
The German policy of Joseph II.: he endeavored to make the Em-
pire a reality; fears of the German princes at this action ; his attempt
to create a German Church practically independent of the Papacy; the
suspicion created that his German policy was to promote only the
power of Austria heightened by his proposal to exchange the Austrian
Netherlands for Bavaria ; this scheme thwarted b}^ the formation of the
Fiirstenbund by Frederick the Great (1785).
Joseph II's Dutch policy: he endeavored, while the Protestant Neth-
erlands were torn by the struggle between the Stadtholder and the
** Patriots," to induce the Dutch to give up the barrier fortresses and
to free the Scheldt to commerce ; by the Treaty of Fontainebleau (10
Nov., 1785) the barrier fortresses, which Joseph had seized in 1781-82,
were confirmed to him by the mediation of France, but the closing of the
Scheldt was maintained ; effect of Joseph II. 's Dutch policy on England ;
it led to the hearty support of the House of Orange and indirectly to
the formation of the Triple Alliance between England, Prussia and the
United Provinces (1788).
Joseph II. 's Russian policy: his admiration for the Tsaritsa Cath-
erine led him to engage, while bis dominions were in almost open in-
surrection, in war_with_the_Turks. fl^^M^ S*"^"" ^^^'^^ '"cft-^^wUt
Position of the Eastern Question during the reign of Joseph II.:
attitude of the Triple Alliance towards the schemes of Joseph and
/. , ..--..--.-
>| / Catherine. »r^^^^
V / Importance of the reisrn of Joseph II.'T liis activi
i
Importance of the reign of Joseph Wr. his activity and endeavor 10
promote internal reforms contrasted with the attitude taken in France
by his brother-in-law, Louis XVI. - -v^ ^^^"^i^^^^jT^ - tn. A., n>-^. -'^rrar^^
Authorities: The best small bdoks'in English are Bright, Maria Theresa,
and Bright, Joseph II. Among secondary works on the period are A. IVo/f and
Zwiedeneck-Sudenhorst, CE'^terreich unter Maria Theresia, Joseph II. und Leopold
II., and Beidtel, Geschichte der oesterreichischeu Staatsverwaltung, vol. i, 1740-
92. On the policy and government of Maria Theresa see the books cited under Lee-
Joseph II. 139
ture 37, especially Ameth, Geschichte Maria Theresias, 10 vols ; A. Wolf, CEster-
reich unter Maria Theresia, with Plot, Le regne de Marie Th^rese dans les Pays-Baa
autrichiens ; A/eyneri, Kaiser Franz. I., and the invaluable collections of letters con-
tained in Ameth, Maria Theresia und Joseph II.: Ihre Correspondenz sammt Bricfen
Joseph's an seiuem Bruder Leopold, 3 vols, and Briefe der Kaiserin MariaTheresia an
ihre Kinder und Freunde, and in Arneth and Geffroy, Correspondance secrete entre
Marie Th^rese et le Comte de Mercy-Argenteau avec les lettres de Marie Thdr^se
et de Marie Antoinette. For the reign of Joseph II. see Huber, Geschichte Josephs
II.; Gross-Hoffinger, Lebens und Regierungsgeschichte Josephs II.; Paganel, His-
toire de Joseph II.; Von Hock and Bidennatm, Der CEsterreichische Staatsrath
(1760-1848); G. Wolf, CEsterreich und Preussen, 1 780-1 790, Das Unter richtswesen
in CEsterreich unter Josef II., and Josefiua ; Ranisfiorn, Kaiser Joseph II. und
seine Zeit ; Meynert, Kaiser Joseph II. ; IVendritisky, Kaiser Josef II. ; Jdger,
Kaiser Joseph II. und Leopold II., Reform und Gegenreform ; Ritter, Kaiser
Joseph II. und seine kirchlichen Reformen ; Zieglauer von Blumenthal, Die
politische Reforrabcwegung in Siebenburgen zur Zeit Josefs II. und Leopolds
IL; ^ra«^, Das Toleranz-Patent Kaiser Joseph II. ; Gachard, Etudes sur I'histoire
des Pays-Bas, vols, ii, iii ; Hubert, De Charles-Quint a Joseph IJ., ^tude sur la
condition des Protestants en Belgique, ^dit de tolerance de 1781 ; Schlitier,
Die Reise des Papstes Pius VI. nach Wien (Pontes rerum Austriacarum, vol.
xlvii); Beer, Die orieutalische Politik CEsterreichs seit 1774; Lindtier, Die Auf-
hebung der Kloster in Deutsch-Tirol, 1782-87; A. Wolf, Die Aufhebung der
Kloster in Inner-oestcrreich, 1782-90; Lustkandl, Die Josephinischen Ideen und
ihr Erfolg, and Brunn^r, Joseph II. : Charakteristik seines Lebens, seiner Regierung,
und seiner Kirchen reform. For this reign there are also several invaluable collec-
tions of letters : Arneth, Joseph II. und Leopold von Toscana : Ihr Briefwechsel
von 1781-90; Joseph II. und Katharina von Russland : Ihr Briefwechsel; and
Marie Antoinette, Joseph II. und Leopold II.: Ihr Briefwechsel; Arneth and
Flammermont, Correspondance secrete du Comte de Mercy-Argenteau avec I'em-
pereur Joseph II. et le prince de Kaunitz ; Beer, Joseph II., Leopold II. und
Kaunitz ; Ihr Briefwechsel, and Brunner, Correspondances intimes de I'cmpereur
Joseph II. avec le comte de Cobenzl et le prince de Kaunitz.
LECTURE 48.
THE NORTHERN COUNTRIES OF EUROPE TO 1789.
Condition of the Protestant Netherlands during the i8th century :
their commercial and financial prosperity, but decline of their naval and
140 The Dutch Revolutmi {lySd-Sy).
military power ; the two parties — the Republican burghers and the sup-
porters of the House of Orange ; the French invasion caused William
IV. of Orange to be declared hereditary Stadtholder (1747) ; William
IV., and, after his death (i 751), his widow, Anne of England, daugh-
ter of George II., to 1759, and lyouis Ernest of Brunswick to 1766,
pursued a policy of close alliance with England, but remained neutral
/uring the Seven Years' War.
William V. (b. 1748) undertook the Stadtholderate in 1766, but Eouis
of Brunswick remained his chief adviser; growth of the " Patriot " party,
which embraced the doctrines of the French writers, and was opposed to
the semi-royal authority 'of the Stadtholder and the oligarchical power
of the burghers ; this party, especially in Holland, desired to help the
insurgents in America, while commercial interests caused the adhesion
of the Dutch to the principles of the Armed Neutrality ; their conduct
caused England to declare war (1780) ; by the Treaty of Versailles the
Dutch ceded Negapatam, their chief factory in India, to England. \
•The Dutch Revolution : William V. accused of favoring the English
during the war ; Louis of Brunswick forced to resign (1784) ; riots in
the cities ; William V. driven from the Hague (1785) ; the Dutch " Pa-
triots " appealed for help to France ; excitement in the cities ; insurrec-
tion of the provinces of Holland and Utrecht against the Stadtholder
(1786-87) ; Vergennes, and after him Montmorin, afraid to send regular
troops for fear of renewing the war with England, but permitted the
raising of a body of French volunteers, the Legion of Maillebois.
/ Pitt resolved to restore the power of the Stadtholder : Wilhelmina,
Princess of Orange, arrested by the " Patriots " (28 June, 1787) ; Har-
ris, afterwards Lord Malmesbury (b. 1746, d. 1820), induced Frederick
William II. of Prussia to restore his brother-in-law, William V. ; a
Prussian army under Charles William Ferdinand. Duke of Brunswick
(b. 1735, d. 1806) occupied Amsterdam (10 Sept., 1787) ; the " Patriot "
leaders exiled ; Van de Spiegel made Grand Pensionary ; Malmesbury
concluded the Triple Alliance between England, Prussia and the United /
Provinces (15 April, 1788). '
History' of Denmark and Norway during the i8th century : growth
of commercial prosperity, and literary and scientific development, under
the autocracy of enlightened kings and ministers ; struggle between
Denmark in the i8th Century, 14I
Germanizing and national ten<dencijSj steady improvement in internal
administration ; foreign policy based on a close_alliance witli_iyi^land ;
close relationship between the royal familiesof England and Denmark ';
territorial policy aimed at the absorption of Holstein^
Reign of Christian VI. u 730-46) : his Puritanism; Germanizing
policy of the Queen, Sophia Magdalen of Baireuth ; his encouragement
of commerce and of the navy ; the Danish East India Company ; chance
of unTUng Denmark with Sweden lost in 1743 by the election of Adol-
phus Frederick of Holstein to be heir to the throne of Sweden, instead
of the Crown Prince of Denmark.
Reign of Frederick V. (1746-66) : reaction from Germanism and
Puritanism ; his two wives, I^ouisa of England and Juliana of Bruns-
wick x^ ministry of John BernstorfF (1751-70) ; danger threatened to
Danish independence by the accession of Peter of Holstein to the throne
of Russia as Peter III. in 1762; threats of the Tsar to destroy Den-
mark ; Catherine, on usurping the throne of Russia, made peace with
Denmark and allowed Holstein to be exchan^:£d_ibr the bishopric of
Liib£ck,and the duchy of Oldenburg, which were granted to the House
of Holstein- Gottorp (1767).
Reign of Christian VII. (i 766-1808) : Struens€£,(b. 1737) made chief
minister (1770) ; his character ; his philosophical ideas and use of his
power ; he represented the German, phjlosophicaL and sweeping reform
party ; he suppressed the censorship of the press, abolished the Council
of State, reorganized the army, established religious toleration, simpli-
fied the collection of the revenue, encouraged education and reformed
the law and the judicial administration ; Struensee accused of being too
intimate with the Queen, Caroline Matilda, sister of George III of
England ; a conspiracy formed against him ; he was arrested (17 Jan.,
1772) and executed r28 April, 1772).
Andrew Bernstorff (b. 1735, d. 1797), chief minister : in foreign affairs
he maintained the English alliance ; in internal affairs he carried out
gradual reforms ; insanity of the King ; the Queen Dowager forced
"Sernstorff to resign (1780), and called Guldberg to office ; Denmark
joined the Armed Neutrality (1780) ; the Crowm Prince Frederick seized
the government (1784) and recalled Bernstorff to office ; the reforms of
Bernstorff; he prohibited the negro slave trade and (20 June, 1788)
rv
142 Sweden in the i8th Ceyitury.
I finally abolished serfdom in Denmark ; the Jews allowed the rights of
citizens ; by an arrangement with Russia, Denmark attacked Sweden
in 1788, but peace was made the same year by the intervention of the
Triple Alliance.
Sweden in the i8th century : her losses by the treaties which con-
cluded the Northern War, and especially by the Treaty of Nystadt
(1721), reduced her to a second-rate power; the election of Ulrica
Eleanor, younger sister of Charles XII., to the throne of Sweden
(1719), instead of the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, transferred all power to /
the Senate, composed of the nobles, which was answerable to the Es- I
tates, or Diet ; powerlessness of the Swedish monarchy ; concentration
of executive, legislative and judicial authority in the hands of the no-
bles ; their poverty, rapacity and want of patriotism ; rivalry of two
parties — the " Hats," relying on France, bribed by France, looking for
the reconquest of Finland and St^ettin, and desirous of keeping in touch
J with Western Europe, and the *' Caps,'' bribed by Russia^and hoping
by Russian help to conquer Denmark and Pomerania. , - •; '^^-^^V
Reign of Ulrica Eleanor (17 19-41) and of her husband i^rederick of
Hesse-Cassel, Frederick I. of Sweden (1720-51): rule of the "Caps"
(1721-38); administration of Count Arvid Horn ;|the " Hats " obtained
the mastery and declared war against Russia at the request of France
(4 Aug., 1741); the Swedes defeated at Wilmanstrand (3 Sept., 1741)
and Helsingfors (1742^ by the Treaty of Abo with Russia (23 Jan.,
1743) a small cession of territory was made to Russia, and Adolphus
Frederick of Holstein, Bishop of Liibeck, was elected heir to the Swed-
ish throne at the request of the Tsaritsa Elizabeth, in the place of his
cousin, Peter of Holstein-Gottorp, the heir to the Russian throne ; de-
feat of the plan to choose the Crown Prince of Denmark and thus
to unite the Scandinavian countries ; personality of Frederick I. ; his
code of civil law (1736); his patronage of Linnaeus and foundation of
the Academy of Stockholm.
Reign of Adolphus Frederick (i 751-71); he was married to Louisa
Ulrica, sister of Frederick the" Great ; the "Hats" remained in power
during the greater part of his reign ; attempts of the King, spurred on
by the Queen, to restore the royal authority ; execution of Horn and
Brahe (1756); at the demand of France and Russia, the Swedes took
Gustavus III. of Sweden. 143
part in the Seven Years War and attacked Prussia ; their part in the
war ; after the death of the Tsaritsa Elizabeth, Adolphus Frederick
made peace with Frederick the Great at Hamburg (20 May, 1762;; the
" Caps " recovered power (1765); at the instigation of his son, Gustavus,
the King made a vain attempt to overthrow the power of the nobles
and the Senate by an appeal to the Estates of Sweden (1769).
Schemes of Russia, Prussia and Denmark for the partition of Sweden
(1764, 1766, 1769).
Reign of Gustavus III. (1771-92): his character and education ; his
travels ; his attachment to France ; his adoption of the theory of en-
lightened_despotism ; supported by Vergennes, the French ambassador
to Sweden, by a coup d'etat (19 Aug., 1772) he destroyed^^the power of
the Senate and assumed all executive^authoritv. leaving the control of
taxation to the Estates ; his internal policy; sweeping refor^s^ he
\ \ abolished torture^ encouraged commerce, improved the administration
^ and suppressed the censorship of the press ; his difficulties with the
Estates ; his autocratic actions.
The foreign policy of Gustavus III. : he joined the Armed Neutrality
.^^(j78o);^V^o '^Tn' liatToiial support he attacked Russia (1788); misbe-
iiavior of the Swedish army in Finland ; the malcontents led by the
king's brother, Charles, Duke of Sudermania ; Sweden attacked by
Denmark (1788); coup d'etat of 178Q (20 Feb.); Gustavus declared a
new fundamental law of Sweden, that j" the_King_shall administer the
I a£Eairs of State as_he_thitiks best f ; victory won by the Swedish navy
at Svenska Sound (9 July, 1790); Treaty of Ver^a signed with Russia
(14 Aug., 1790) establishing the status quo ante bellum.
Claims of Gustavus III. to be considered a typical enlightened despot
of the i8th century. \^:<t,,^^^,^\^ - ■rS^-\^ ^ a^l%U
Authorities : For the Dutch Revolution see Ellis, History of the Late Revolu-
tion in the Dutch Republic ; Caillard^ Memoire sur la Revolution de Hollande, pub-
lished \xi Stgur^ Decade Historique, vol. iii ; De Witt, Une invasion prussicnne
en Hollande en 1787 ; Bohtlingk, Die hollandische Revolution 1787 und der
deutsche Furstenbund ; Schenk, Wilhelm der Funfte ; Nijhoff, De Hertog van
Brunswijk {i'j$o-^^)\Colenbrdnder, De Patriottentijd ( 1776-1786): lyau, Geschichte
des preussischen Feldzugs in der Provinz Holland im Jahre 1787, and as primary
authorities, Mahnesbury, Diaries and Correspondence; IVilliam V., Brieven
aan Baron van Lijnden van Blitterswijk, ed. De Bas ; Hogendorp, Brieven en
144 ^^^^ Mediterraiiean in the i8th Centicry.
Gedenkschrifteu ; Van de Spiegel, Zijne Tijdgenooten, ed. Vreede, vols, i-iii, and
Dejonge, Documents politiques et diplomatiques sur les revolutions de 1787 et 1795
dans la republique des Provinces-Unies. For Danish history see Allen, Histoire
de Danemark ; Vedel, Correspondance ministerielle du comte J. H. E. BernstorflF,
1751-70 ; Correspondance entre Eernstorff et Choiseul, 1758-66 ; Host, Graf Struen-
see und sein Ministerium ; Falkenskjold, Memoires a I'epoque du ministere et de la
catastrophe du comte de Struensee ; Lagreze, La reine Caroline Mathilde et le
comte Struensee ; Wraxall, Life and Times of Caroline Matilda, Queen of Den-
mark, and Wiltich, Struensee. For Swedish history see Malmstrom, Sveriges
politiska historia (1718-1772); Heidenstam, Una soeur du grand Frederic, Louise
Ulrique, reine de Suede ; Bain, Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries ; Gejfroy,
Gustave III. et la cotir de France ; Bonneville de Marsangy, Le comte de Ver-
gennes, son ambassade en Suede (1771-74); Posselt, Geschichte Gustavs III., and
Sheridan, History of the Late Revolution in Sweden. As a primary authority
see the papers of Gustavus III., ed. Geijer.
LECTURE 49.
THE SOUTHERN COUNTRIES OF EUROPE TO 1789.
Decreasing commercial importance of the Mediterranean during the
18th centur}^ and consequent decreasing political importance of the
countries surrounding it : the civilization of Europe began to center in
the northwest of the continent, iii England, France and the United
Provinces ; causes of this change.
The condition of the Mediterranean in the i8th century : ravages of
the Barbary corsairs ; the trade of the Levant absorbed by the English ;
effect of their occupation of Gibraltar and Minorca ; Venice monopolized
the trade of the Adriatic ; government of Malta by the Knights of Saint
John of the Hospital.
Portugal in the i8th century : its commercial and political depend^
ence on England after the Methuen Treaty (1703) ; its attempts to get
free from the English alliance and to enter into closV relations with
Spain ; Spain's desire to annex Portugal ; internal government ; the
monarchy dependent upon Brazil for its revenue ; misgovernment of
Brazil ; disappearance of the Portuguese power in Asia.
Pombal. 145
The reign of John V. (1706-50): his endeavors to imitate Louis XIV.;
the reign of Joseph (1750-77); the earthquake at Lisbon (i Nov.,
1755); the administration of Pombal (b. 1699, d. 1782), one of the en-
lightened ministers of the i8th century ; his internal policy and re-
forms ; his belief in autocracy ; Pombal took the lead in the suppression
of the Society of Jesus ; he abolished slavery in Portugal (25 May, 1773),
but maintained negro slavery in Brazil ; he reformed the administra-
tion and the judicial system ; he encouraged trade and manufactures;
he promoted higher education, founded more than 800 schools, and re-
organized the University of Coimbra ; Pombal' s foreign policy ; he de-
sired to throw off the yoke of England ; the Spaniards invaded Portugal
under the terms of the Pacte de Famille ; they were defeated with the
assistance of England ; peace signed between Spain and Portugal (10
Feb., 1763); reign of Maria L (1777-1816) and Pedro IIL (1777-86);
dismissal of Pombal ; maintenance of his system ; Portugal joined the
Armed Neutrality (1782; ; insanity of Maria I. (1788) and assumption
of the government by Prince John (1792).
^ain in the i8th century : poverty and exhaustion, material and
intellectual, of the country ; character of the government of the Bour-
bon kings of Spain ; the royal revenue derived from the Spanish col-
onies in America ; their misgovernment ; attempts made to maintain a
strong navy ; abandonment of commerce.
The latter years of the reign of Philip V. (1700-46): the administra-
tions of Patino (1726-36), the successor of Ripperda, and of Campillo
(1741-43); the reign of Ferdinand VI. (1746-59); the influence of Fari-
nelli ; administrations of La Ensenada (1743-54) and of Wall (1754-63).
The reign of Charles III., formerly King of Naples and Sicily (1759-
88): Charles III. one of the enlightened despots; his efforts to improve
the condition of Spain ; his difficulties ; excellence of his ministers ;
administrative refornis of Squillacci (1759-66); their unpopularity; forced
from office by a riot at Madrid ; Aranda (b. 1718, d. 1799) and the ex-
pulsion of the Jesuits ; his internal administration ( 1766-73); its spirit
of progress carried on by Florida Blanca (1773-92); their belief in autoc-
racy and centralization ; O'Reilly reformed the army and rebuilt the
navy ; Campomanes established a national system of education, and
with Jovellanos reformed the judicial system and introduced the ideas
146 Charles III. of Spaiji.
of the political economists ; Cabarrus founded the Bank of St. Charles,
(1782), and established a national system of credit ; revival*of commerce
after throwing open to all Spanish ports trade with America ; reform of
the currency ; encouragement of public works and improvement of agri-
culture ; endeavor of Olavide to restore prosperity in Andalusia ; his
overthrow by the Inquisition (1776J).
The foreign policy of Charles III. : its keynotes — the recovery of Gib-
raltar and the conquest of Portugal ; Spain attempted to achieve these
ends by the signature of the Facte de Famille with France (15 Aug.,
1761); Spain declared war against England (1762) and invaded Por-
tugal ; defeat of the Spaniards, and loss of Havana and Manilla ; by the
Treaty of Paris (1763) Spain ceded Florida to England and recovered
Havana and Manilla ; France ceded Louisiana to Spain in compensa-
tion for the loss of Florida ; Grimaldi, Minister for Foreign Affairs (1763-
76) and Florida Blanca (1776-92); Spain joined France against Eng-
land in the War of American Independence ; the siege of Gibraltar;
part played by the Spanish navy during the war ; by the Treaty of Ver-
sailles (1783) Spain recovered Minorca and Florida; expeditions made
by Spain against the Barbary corsairs (1775, 1785;.
Death of Charles III. (14 Dec, 1788); importance of his reign;
accession of Charles IV.
Italy in the i8th century: Austrian influence practically supreme;
the House of Savoy, which ruled in Sardinia and Piedmont, the only
national dynasty in Italy.
I. The Papacy: Pope Pius VI. — Braschi (1775-99); his administra-
tion; his endeavor to drain the Pontine marshes ; foundation of the
Clementine Museum; his difficulties with the Emperor Joseph II., the
Grand Duke Leopold and Tanucci; his visit to Vienna (1782).
II. The Two Sicilies : the government of Don Carlos, afterwards
Charles III. of Spain (1735-59); the administration of Xanuccijb. 1698,
d. 1783), one of the most enlightened ministers of his time; he abol-
ished feudalism in Naples; his attempt to reform the laws; his encour-
agement of art and education ; his action against the power of the
Church; Charles on his accession to the throne of Spain gave Naples
and Sicily to his third son, Ferdinand IV. (i 759-1 825) ; during the
minority of the young king, Tanucci remained in power ; he con-
Italy in the i8th Century. 147
tinued his reforms; he cooperated in the suppression of the Jesuits and
occupied Benevento and Ponte Corvo (1769); his struggle with the
Papacy and suppression of useless bishoprics ; as a result of his mar-
riage (1768) with Maria Carolina, daughter of Maria Theresa, the king
dismissed Tanucci (1776); supremacy of the Queen ; influence of Acton
(b. 1736, d. 181 1); backwardness of the island of Sicily; its "Parlia-
ment"; failure of the attempted reforms of Domenico Caracciolo (1781).
■'^ III. Tuscany : the administration of the Grand Duke Leopold, second
^/^j^Qn_o£Maria Theresa (1765-90); his reforms; his code of laws; he
^ reduced the number of bishoprics and monasteries; he improved the
material condition of Tuscany; his administrative reforms; his judicial
reforms; he adopted the economic ideas of the Physiocrats and abol-
'ished all restrictions on industry and commerce; his patronage of
higher education; he founded the prosperity of Leghorn; he disbanded
his army ; the Grand Duke Leopold the most enlightened of the
benevolent despots.
IV. Parma : the reign of Don Philip (1749-65); the administration of
Du Tillot, Marquis of Felino (b. 1711, d. 1774); his reforms ; his patron-
age of higher education ; his action against the monasteries ; his en-
couragement of manufactures ; the reign of Don Ferdinand ( 1 765- 1 802) ;
Du Tillot's scheme of marrying him to the heiress of Modena foiled ;
Du Tillot's struggle with the Papacy and suppression of the Jesuits ;
he abolished the Inquisition and reorganized the University of Parma
(1768) ; Don Ferdinand married Maria Amelia, daughter of Maria
Theresa (1769); dismissal of Du Tillot by the influence of the Duchess
(177^); greatness of Du Tillot ; "a great minister of a little state ".
V. Modena : reign of Francis III. (1737-80); he supported France
in the War of the Austrian Succession, but after the Peace of Aix-la-
Chapelle (174.8) became Governor- General of Lombardy for Maria
Theresa ; reign of Hercules III. (i 780-1 803); his avarice and unpopu-
larity ; his heiress, Maria Beatrice, married the Archduke Ferdinand,
third son of Maria Theresa (1771).
VI. Lombardy : the Milanese and Mantua governed as possessions
of Austria by the Duke of Modena (1748-80) and by the Archduke
Ferdinand (1780-96); enlightened administration of Count Firmian
(1759-82); his reforms and encouragement of higher education; intel-
148 Italy in the 18 th Century.
lectual development in Milan ; the great Lombard writers and men of
science, Beccaria, Verri, Spallanzani and Volta.
VII. Kingdom of Sardinia : abdication of Victor Amadeus II. (1730);
the reign of Charles Emmanuel III. (1730-73); he pursued the tradi-
tional policy of the House of Savoy ; his territorial gains in the War of
the Polish Succession and in the War of the Austrian Succession ; the
the reign of Victor Amadeus III. (1773-96); his close alliance with
France ; influenced by the enlightened spirit of the century ; his build-
ings at Nice ; improvement of his army on the Prussian model ; ab-
sence of serfdom in Piedmont.
VIII. The Republic of Venice : its mastery of the Adriatic and gov-
ernment of the Ionian Islands ; conservatism of its administration ;
Venice, " the holiday city of Europe "; splendor of its festivals.
IX. The Republic of Genoa : its decline in prosperity during the 18th
century ; insurrection in Corsica (1729) ; Corsica declared its independ-
ence (1733); election of Theodore, Baron von Neuhof, as King of Corsica
(1736); the Genoese requested the assistance of France; the French
under Maillebois conquered the Corsicans (1739); the French evacuated
Corsica (1743); the second insurrection of the Corsicans, headed by
Paoli (b. 1726, d. 1807), also suppressed by French troops (1753-56);
third insurrection under Paoli (1759); the Republic of Genoa ceded Cor-
sica to France (1768); conquest of the island by the French (1769).
X. The petty states of Italy : the republics of Lucca and S^an Marino;
the principalities of Piombino and Monaco.
The Turks during the i8th century : steady decline of their power ;
the relations of the Sublime Porte with France ; the wars of the Turks
with Austria and Russia closed by the Treaties of Passarowitz (1718),
Belgrade (1739), Kutschuk Kainardji (1774), Sistova (1790) and Jassy
(1792); causes of the decay of the Turkish power ; the dismemberment
of the Turkish dominions becomes one of the two problems of the East-
ern question.
Authorities : For Malta, Boisgelin, Ancient and Modern Malta. For Portu-
gal, Morse Stephens, Story of Portugal ; Oliveira Martins, Historia de Portugal ;
Latino Coelho, Historia de Portugal desde os fins do XVII. Seculo ate 1814;
Smith, Memoirs of the Marquis of Pombal ; Moore, Alberoni, Ripperda and Pom-
bal ; with the anonymous Administration du Marquis de Pombal, 4 vols., and the
Germany in the i8th Century, 149
so-called M^moires du Marquis de Pombal, 4 vols. For Spain, Coxe, Memoirs of
the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon ; Rosseeuw-Saint-Hilaire, Histoire
d'Espagne, vols. 12, 13 ; Lafuente, Storia general de Espana, vols. 19-21 ; Ferret
del Rio, Historia del reinado de Carlos III., 4 vols.; Danvilla y Collado, Reinado
de Carlos III., 6 vols ; Muriel, Gobierno de Sefior Rey Don Carlos III ; Rodriguez
Villa, El Marques de la Ensenada ; Lavalle, Don Pablo Olavide ; Coltneiro, His-
toria de la Ecouomia politica en Espana ; Carnpomaftes, Obras ; Jovellanos, Obras ;
with the chapters on Spain in Schlosser, History of the Eighteenth Century, trans-
lated by Davison. For Italy, Botta, Histoire d'ltalie depuis 1789 a 1814; Cantu,
Histoire des Italiens ; Brosch^ Geschichte des Kirchenstaats ; Orsi, Storia degli
ultimi quattro secoli della Chiesa ; Ariaud, Vie du pape Pie VI. ; Collftla, Storia
del Reame di Napoli dal 1734 sino al 1825 ; Lauria, Di Bernardo Tanucci e dei suoi
tempi ; Gagni^re, La reine Marie Caroline de Naples ; Hel/ert, Maria Karolina,
Konigin von Neapel ; Zobi, Storia civile della Toscana dal 1737 al 1848, 6 vols.;
Poller, Vie et m^moires de Scipion de Ricci, eveque de Pistoie, 4 vols. ; Nisard,
Du Tillot ; Cantii, L' abate Parini e la Lombardia nel secolo passato ; Bianchi,
Storia della Monarchia Piemontese, 1773-1861 ; Belgiojoso, Histoire de la maison
de Savoie ; Costa-Beauregard, M^moires historiques sur la maison royale de Savoie;
Carutli, Storia del regno di Carlo Emanuele III.; Daru, Histoire de la rdpub-
lique de Venise ; Jacobi, Histoire g^n^rale de la Corse ; Renucci, Storia di
Corsica ; Gregorovius, Corsica ; Arrighi, Histoire de Pascal Paoli ; and Boswell,
Account of Corsica and Memoirs of Paoli. For the Turks, Creasy, History of the
Ottoman Turks ; Von Hammer, Histoire de I'empire ottoman ; Zinkeisen, Ges-
chichte des osmanischen Reichs ; with Saint-Priest, M^moires sur I'ambassade
fran^aise en Turquie ; Bonnac, M^moire historique sur I'ambassade de France a
Constantinople, ed. Schefer (with Bonnac's correspondence, 1716-24); Vandal,
Une ambassade fran9aise en Orient sous Louis XV., la mission du marquis de
Villeneuve (1728-41); Bonneville de Marsangy, Le chevalier de Vergennes, son
ambassade a Constantinople (1755-69); Pingaud, Choiseul-Gouffier (1784-92); and
Baron de Toll, Memoirs concerning the War of Turkey with Russia.
LECTURE 50.
GERMANY TO 1789.
The condition of Germany in the 18th century : the establishment of
the independence of the states of the Empire by the Treaties of West-
phalia had destroyed the sense of German nationality ; looseness of the
bonds which held the Empire together.
150 The Empire in the i8th Century,
History of the Holy Roman Empire in the 1 8th century : conditions
produced during the War of the Austrian Succession ; the weakness of
the Emperor Charles VII.; innovation at the election of 1745, when the
envoy of Maria Theresa, as Queen of Bohemia, was permitted to vote ;
war of execution declared against Frederick the Great (1756), under
which an army of imperial troops was defeated with the French at Ross-
bach, but when it was proposed to place Frederick under the ban of the
Empire, in 1758, the Protestant princes threatened to secede ; election of
Joseph II. as King of the Romans (1764); he became Emperor (1765).
Impotence of the Diet of the Empire, which since 1663 had remained
in perpetual session and consisted only of envoys : in 1788 only four-
teen princes of the Empire and eight free cities maintained representa-
tives at Ratisbon ; the Imperial Diet had thus ceased to be an operative
bond of federal union.
The judicial authority of the Empire: scandalous inefficiency of the
Imperial Tribunal at Wetzlar; Joseph II. commenced a visitation of the
Tribunal (1767-76), but effected no valid reform; greater vigor of the
Aulic Council, especially during the reign of Joseph II.; while the
Imperial Tribunal neglected appeals laid before it, the Aulic Council
dealt more promptly than before with cases against princes for misuse
of power.
Utter inadequacy of the executive power of the Empire: mismanage-
ment and inefficiency of the Circles; inability of the Empire, as such,
to carry on war proved in the campaign of Rossbach ; disputes as to
raising, commanding and paying imperial troops; a Jew contracted for
the raising of the quota of soldiers demanded from the Bishop of Pader-
born.
Efforts of Joseph II. to make the imperial power a reality: besides try-
ing to reform the Imperial Tribunal and punishing bad rulers, he tried
to take a more active part in the Imperial Diet; jealousy aroused by
this action among the Princes of the Empire; the project of exchanging
the Austrian Netherlands for Bavaria increased the apprehension of the
ambitions of Austria ; Frederick the Great seized the opportunity to
form the Fiirstenbund, or League of Princes (23 July, 1785); impor-
tance of this movement; it accentuated the rivalry between Prussia and
Austria for the leadership of Germany; Joseph's idea of uniting Ger-
many under the Emperor effectually thwarted.
Frederick William II. of Prussia. 15I
Joseph II. stood forth as the champion of the German Church: the
interference of the Rota at Rome with the metropolitan court at
Mayence in the case of an appeal from Spires caused a clause to be
inserted in the capitulation of 1765 declaring it necessary to check all
encroachments ou the liberties of the Church in Germany; the action
of Joseph caused the Pope to withdraw his claims; effect of Joseph II. 's
action minimized by his persistence in interfering with the rights of
German eccleolastical Princes of the Empire in Austria.
Imitation of the splendor and despotism of 1^01115; yTV_p1mo«;i- uni-
versal among German princes during the first halfjjf the i8th century;
followed during the ^^econd^_halfj3y a general adherence to the ideas of
enlightened despotism; influence of Frederick the Great in bringing
about this change.
The situation in Prussia at the death of Frederick the Great (1786):
the character of his nephew and successor, Frederick William II. (b.
1744); the internal policy of the new king ; he maintained the admin-
istrative system of his uncle, but in the place of personal supervision left
the direction to ministers of mediocre capacity ; both the army and the
civil service suffered from the change of monarchs ; the Prussian Court ;
influence of favorites, male and female ; Frederick William II. 's atti-
tude towards religion ; he departed from the toleration which his uncle
had established ; influence of the mystics, Rosicrucians, etc. ; his ex-
travagance ; he spent the treasures accumulated by his uncle ; diflSculty
experienced in raising an adequate revenue..
The foreign policy of Frederick William II. : the management of for-
eign affairs left to Hertzberg (b. 1725, d. 1795), who had been minister
under Frederick the Great ; he desired to renew the former friendship
with England ; the opportunity afforded by the Dutch Revolution of
1785-87 ; signature of the Triple Alliance between England, Prussia
and the United Provinces C15 April, 1788); Hertzberg, supported by the
Triple Alliance, prepared to intervene in the settlement of the Eastern
question. ^
The most remarkable enlightened despot in Germany was Cfw^rles
Frederick (b. 1728, d. i8ii), Margrave of Baden-Baden and Baden-
Durlach ; his writings on political economy and attempt to put eco-
nomic ideas into practice ; he abolished serfdom (23 July, 1783) and
152 Germany in the i8th Century.
established a scheme of primary education ; among other princes sim-
ilarly enlightened may be noted Maximilian Joseph, Elector of Ba-
varia, a great law reformer and codifier, and Charles Theodore, Elector
Palatine and Elector of Bavaria, who suppressed many convents, and,
with the help of Count Rumford (b. 1753, d. 18 14), promoted reforms,
but who persecuted the Protestants; Frederick Augustus, Elector of
Saxony ; Clement Wenceslas of Saxony, Elector- Archbishop of Treves,
and the Archduke Maximilian, Elector- Archbishop of Cologne, who
were both tolerant rulers, and Fiirstenberg, who administered the bish-
opric of Miinster for many years ; against these enlightened princes maj^
be set the Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, who sold his subjects to England
for the American war, the Duke of Wiirtemberg and the Duke of Zwei-
briicken, or Deux-Ponts. '^'^^'^'^^'A ^^^^--'--^^^-''^^'■f^ ''
Although government in the larger states of Germany was adminis-
tered on enlightened principles towards the close of the iSth century,
the government of the smaller principalities was generally oppressive.
In spite of its unfavorable political condition, Germany during the i8th
century began to recover from the effects of the Thirty Years' War ;
material improvement ; intellectual development ; increase in the num-
ber and efficiency of German universities ; foundation of the Univer-
sity of Gottingen (1734); German literature; the Court of Weimar.
Distant prospect in the iSth century of German unity ; Frederick the
Great, the national hero ; distrust of the schemes of Joseph II.; admira-
tion felt for the Prussian system of government ; Germany hampered in
its development by the existence of the Holy Roman Empire and the
ideas of the Treaties of Westphalia.
Authorities : Many of the books cited tinder Lectures 45 and 47 describe the
attitude of Frederick the Great and Joseph II. towards the Empire. A bright and
concise account of the political and social condition of Germany on the eve of the
French Revolution is given in Rambaud, Les Fran^ais sur le Rhin. For the con-
dition of the Empire during the i8th century see Putter, Historical Development
of the Political Constitution of the Germanic Empire, translated by Dornford.
Among the general works on Germany may be noted Biedermann, Deutschlands
politische, materielle, und sociale Zustande im i8*^° Jahrhundert ; Hausser,
Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs des Grqssen bis zur Griindung des
deutschen Bundes ; Heigel, Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs des Grossen
bis zur Auflosung des alten Reichs ; Perthes, Politische Zustande und Personen in
The Enlightened Despots. 153
Deutschland zur Zeit der franzosischen Herrschaft, aud Geismar^ Die politische
Literatur der Deutschen im 18"" Jahrhundert ; among books on individual German
states, see Philippson, Geschichte des preussischen Staatswesens vom Tode Fried-
richs des Grossen bis zu der Freiheitskriege ; Cassel, Friedrich Wilhelm II. ; Mas-
senbacfi, Memoiren ; Voss^ Neunuudsechzig Jahre am preussischen Hofe ; Mirabeau,
Histoire secrete de la cour de Berlin ; Hausser, Uber die Regierung Karl Fnedrichs
von Baden ; Kleinschmidt, Karl Friedrich von Baden; Erdviaimsdorffer^ Politische
Korrespondenz Karl Friedrichs von Baden ; Charles Frederick of Baden, Brieflicher
Verkehr mit Mirabeau uud Dupont, ed. Knies ; Hausser, Geschichte des rhcin-
ischen Pfalz ; Strippelmann, Beitrage zur Geschichte Hessen Cassels ; Normann'
Ehrenfels, Konigliche Wiirttemburgischer Staatsminister, 1756-1817, Denkwurdig-
keiten, ed. Roth von Schreckenstein ; Schreiber, Geschichte Baierns, and Count
Rum/ord, Memoirs.
LECTURE 51.
THE ENLIGHTENED DESPOTS.
The most characteristic feature in government of the iSth century
was the existence and the work of the Enlightened Despots ; though
differing in the degrees of their enlightenment, these rulers showed a
common tendency to use their authority for the good of their people.
The three most important enlightened despots, not because they were
,most enlightened, but because of their political power, were the Em-
peror Joseph II., the Tsaritsa Catherine II. and Frederick the Great;
their example had much to do with changing the conception of the
duties of monarchy in Europe, but they did not originate the move-
ment, and were its most illustrious rather than its most thoroughgoing
representatives.
Some of the enlightened despots, like the three rulers above mentioned,
carried on the work of government themselves ; others, like Joseph of
Portugal, Charles III. of Spain and Christian VII. of Denmark, showed
their sympathy with the spirit of the times by supporting enlightened
ministers, like Pombal, Tanucci, Aranda and Bernstorff.
The origin of the conception of enlightened despotism is to be found
154 ^'^^^ E7ilighte7ied Despots.
in the works of the political philosphers, political economists and
jurists of the century.
The enlightened despots and their ministers were very sensitive to
the criticism of the men of letters of their time, and European public
opinion had much to do with initiating and encouraging schemes of
internal reform ; the chief leaders of the intellectual movement in Eu-
rope during the century were Frenchmen, and it was to French writers
who were practically unable to influence their own country that foreign
monarchs looked for advice and applause.
In the 17th century there was a general movement towards giving
autocratic power or despotism to monarchs because they best realized
the State with its ideals of internal peace and national independence or
aggression ; in the i8th century autocratic government sought to justify
its further existence on the ground that it could do more good for the
people than any other system.
The following points are common to all the enlightened despots or
enlightened ministers of the i8th century : (i) their belief that autoc-
racy logically implied extreme centralization ; (2) their indifference to
racial, national- or local characteristics, looking on their subjects as
people to be governed according to system for their own good whether
they liked it or not ; (3) their disregard of class distinctions, which led
them to select servants from the most suitable persons and finally de-
stroyed the political power of the aristocracies of the Continent ; (4)
their freedom from religious intolerance, most of them being sceptics
and regarding religion from an impersonal standpoint.
The enlightened despots and ministers paid special attention to the
following subjects ; some of them distinguished themselves more in one
line than another ; but their claim to be enlightened rests upon their
zeal in more than one of the following particulars :
(i) Attempts to soften or abolish serfdom and other feudal abuses :
in this line Joseph II. was the most thoroughgoing of the enlightened
despots, but before his time Pombal abolished slavery in Portugal (25
May, 1773) and Tanucci deprived the nobility of Naples of their feudal
power, while afterwards Charles Frederick, Margrave of Baden, abolished
serfdom in his dominions (23 July, 1783), and Andrew Bernstorff did the
same thing in Denmark (20 June, 178S).
The Enlightened Despots, 155
(2) Projects of legal and judicial reform : promulgation of codes of
law, in which work Frederick the Great of Prussia, the Grand Duke
Leopold of Tuscany, Maximilian Joseph of Bavaria, and Frederick Au-
gustus, Elector of Saxony, were especially distinguished ; reforms in
judicial administration by the abolition of torture and the introduction
of more humane methods of punishment ; improvement in this respect
was shown in the work of all the enlightened despots, owing chiefly to
the influence of Voltaire and Beccaria ; effect of the publication of
Beccaria's Dei delitti e delta pene (1764), Montesquieu's Esprit des lois
(1748), and Filangieri's Scienza delta legislazione (1780).
(3) Efforts to promote material prosperity by the undertaking of
public works, such as draining marshes, making roads and improving
harbors : in these directions Frederick the Great, Catherine II. in
Russia, iVranda and Florida Blanca in Spain, Pope Pius VI. and Vic-
tor Amadeus III., King of Sardinia, did the most.
(4) Adoption of the ideas of the political economists in collecting
their revenues and encouraging manufactures and commerce : some of
the enlightened despots were themselves distinguished members of the
Physiocratic school, like Charles Frederick, Margrave of Baden, and
the Grand Duke Leopold of Tuscany, while the Emperor Joseph II. in
Austria, Gustavus III. in Sweden, Pombal in Portugal, Campomanes
and Jovellanos in Spain, and the Bemstorffs in Denmark, were partisans
of the new school of political economy.
(5) Encouragement of education, and especially of higher education:
all the enlightened despots established academies of literature, science
and art in their capitals, and encouraged learned men; many univer-
sities were established or reorganized, notably in Italy, Germany, Den-
mark and Portugal ; systems of national primary education were at-
tempted by Frederick the Great, Charles Frederick, Margrave of Baden,
and Campomanes in Spain.
(6) Freedom of the press established, for instance, by Struensee in
Denmark (1770), Gustavus III. in Sweden (1784), and by the Emperor
Joseph II. (178.^), but their example was not universally followed,
though the power of the censorship was everywhere diminished.
''7) Extension of ideas of religious toleration, embracing not only the
different forms of Christianity, but also Judaism : the Emperor Joseph
156 The E7ilightened Despots.
II., and Bernstoiif in Denmark, specifically abolished the disabilities ot
the Jews ; Frederick the Great showed himself tolerant to all varieties
of Christians ; but the most famous declarations of toleration, permitting
both liberty of thought and liberty of worship, were issued by Cath-
erine II. in her instruction for the making of a new code (1766), which
even permitted the Muhammadans to build mosques, and by Joseph II.
in his Edict of Toleration (13 Oct., 1781).
(8) Deliberate steps taken to diminish the wealth and power of the
Church in Roman Catholic states : illustrated by the combined attack
upon the Jesuits, and by the suppression of the Inquisition in Parma
(1768), in I^ombardy (1775), in Tuscany (1782), in Sicily (1782), and its
modification in Portugal (1769), and by the measures taken for reducing
the number of bishops and monks, by the Emperor Joseph II., the Grand
Duke Leopold of Tuscany, Tanucci, and the Elector Charles Theodore
of Bavaria.
The essential weakness of the enlightened despots was their attempt
to do everything without considering whether the people were prepared
for reform ; further, there could be no guarantee for the continuance of
their work.
Great services rendered by the enlightened despots of the i8th cen-
tury to the cause of civilization and progress in Europe.
Authorities : There exists no single book devoted to the history and the work
of the enlightened despots of the iSth century in Europe, but reference may be
made to Morse Sieph£ns, European History, 1289-1815. chapter i., for a brief
sketch of their position, and to Sorel, Iv' Europe et la Revolution fran5aise, vol. i.
^
LECTURE 52.
LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY IN THE 18th CENTURY.
Characteristics of i8th century literature : it is an age of polished
prose rather than of poetry; dominated at first by severe classicism, it
is later affected by sentimentalism, and ends with a return to simple
naturalism.
Literature in the i8th Century. 157
Importance of i8th century literature : its influence on politics; its
effect on the enlightened despots ; its share in paving the way for the
ideas of the French Revolution ; the epoch of patrons ; the position
held by men of letters.
Services rendered by i8th century literature in making known the
discoveries of experimental science ; the Encyclopedic Methodiqiie.
French literature in the i8th century : decline of poetry ; the drama ;
tragedy; Voltaire (1694-1778); comedy; Marivaux (1688-1763); Cre-
billon (1674-1762); dramatic criticism; Diderot; importance of the
French stage; epic poetry: its decline: Voltaire's Henriade ; other
poets; Gresset (1709-1777); prose writers; historians; Vertot (1655-
1735), Voltaire, Rulhiere (1735-1791); fiction; Lesage (1668-1747),
Gil Bias ; Prevost (1697-1763), Manon Le scant ; Bernardin de Saint-
Pierre (1737-1814), /<2«/^^ Virgi7iie ; theology; the preacher Massillon
( 1 663-1 742); the chief French writers turned their attention to political,
philosophical and social questions; Montesquieu (1689-1755), Esprit
des lois ; Holbach (i 723-1 789); Helvdtius (1715-1771); Raynal (17^3-
1796); Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778); his political philosophy, the
Contrat Social ; his theory of education, Emile ; his sentimentality, the
Nouvelle Heloise ; the Encyclopaedists; Diderot (i 713-1784); D'Alem-
bert (17 17-1783); the typical man oflettersof the i8th century, Voltaire ;
his character, literary merits and influence.
English literature in the i8th century : influence of classicism ; the
Age of Anne ; Pope (1688-1744); Swift (1667-1745); Addison (1672-
1719), Steele ^1671-1729), and the Spectator; Bolingbroke (1678-1751);
Defoe ( 1 663-1 731); the middle period of the century ; sentimentalism ;
Sterne (1713-1768); Johnson (1709-1784), and his influence ; Goldsmith
( 1 728-1 774); poetry; Gray (17 16-177 1); return to nature ; Cowper(i73i-
1800); Burns (1759-1796); fiction; Richardson ( 1743-18 14), Fielding
(1707-1754), Smollett (1721-1771); history; Robertson (1721-1793);
Hume(i7ii-i776); Gibbon (1737-1794); classical scholarship; Bent-
ley (1662-1742); Porson (1759-1808).
Italian literature in the i8th century: its decadence; influence of the
academies; poets and play-wrights ; Metastasio (1698-1782); Goldoni
(1707-1793); Gozzi (1713-1786); Parini (1729-99); Alfieri ( 1749 -1803);
prose writers; Beccaria (i 738-1 794); Filangieri (1752-1788); the study
of history; Muratori (1672-1750); Giannone (1676-1748). f
158 Philosophy in the i8th Ce7itury..
Spanish literature in the i8th century: Isla (1703-1781), /v-^jV Ger-
undio ; its revival under Charles III; the work of academies and liter-
ary societies ; Campomanes (i 723-1 802); Jovellanos (i 744-1 811).
Portuguese literature in the i8th century: revival of Portuguese
poetry; Nascimento (1734-18 19).
Danish literature in the i8th century: Holberg (1684- 1754).
German literature in the i8th century: its beginning and develop-
ment ; the importance of Lessing (1729-1781) as poet and critic; Klop-
stock (1724-1803); Wieland (1733-18 13); Herder (i 744-1 803); German
literature reaches its height with Schiller (1759- 1805) and Goethe
(1749- 1832); causes of the rise of German literature; its significance;
its characteristics; the Court of Weimar; the German universities ;
classical scholarship ; Heyne (i 729-1 812).
Relation of literature to philosophy in the i8th century.
Attitude of philosophical writers toward religion: the French school;
Voltaire ; Rousseau ; D' Alembert ; Holbach ; Helvetius; the more rigid
philosophical thinkers ; Condillac (1715-1780); Condorcet (1743-1794);
the English Deists; Bishop Butler (1692-1752) and the Analogy; the
speculative philosophy of Berkeley (1684-1753); Hume (1711-1777);
the, German philosophers ; Wolff (1679- 1754); the importance of Kant
(1724-1804).
The 1 8th century writers of political philosophy; influence of I^ocke
and the English thinkers; importance of Montesquieu, Rousseau, and
Voltaire; Beccaria and Filangieri ; the Abbe de Saint- Pierre ( 1658-1743).
Political economy and its development in the i8th century: Quesnay
(1694-1774); the Marquis de Mirabeau (1715-1789) ; Adam Smith
(1723-1790) and the publication of the Wealth of Nations (1776).
Characteristic features of the literary and philosophical movements
of the 1 8th century.
LECTURE 53.
ART AND SCIENCE IN THE 18th CENTURY.
The tendency noticed in the 17th century towards the decadence of
art, under the influence of conventionality and sentimentalism, increases
Art in the i8th Century. 159
in the i8th century, while the development of experimental science led
to startling discoveries and their application.
Decline of art in the i8th century : its causes ; extended study of the
theory of art ; Diderot (i 713-1784); Reynolds (i 723-1792); improve-
ment of education in art ; importance of Rome in this respect ; revival
of the study of ancient Greek art ; Winckelmann (1717-1768); develop-
ment of the arts of engiaving and etching; general diffusion of know-
ledge of the great works of art; royal and noble patronage of art ; the
formation of the great galleries of Europe; Diisseldorf, Dresden; dilet-
tantism.
The Italian school of painting: the Roman school; Battoni (1708-
1787); Raphael Mengs (1728-1779), though German by birth, belonged
to this school ; the Venetian school : Canaletto the elder (1697-1768;;
Canaletto the younger (i 724-1 780); Guardi (17 12-1793).
The French school of painting : its representatives in the i8th cen-
tury ; Boucher (1703-1770), and classicism ; Watteau (1684-1721), and
graceful conventionality; Greuze (1726-1805), and sentimentalism ; new
ideas introduced by David (1748-1825); his greatness as a draughts-
man ; his influence on the French school of art.
The English school of painting: Hogarth (i 697-1 764); his merits
and faults ; foundation of the Royal Academy (1768); the great English
portrait painters; Reynolds (1723-1792); Gainsborough (1727-1788);
Romney (1734- 1802).
Sculpture : the one great sculptor of the i8th century; Canova (1757-
1822); his unique position.
Effect of the increased study of Greek and Roman art : the excava-
tions at Herculaneuni and Pompeii ; the antiquarians ; the Clementine
Museum ; Visconti the elder (i 722-1 784); the great collections of gems
and of classical antiquities.
Architecture: it continued at first to be dominated by 17th century
ideals and pseudo-classicism ; imitations of Versailles in Germany and
elsewhere; influence of more correct knowledge of classical architecture;
Salvi (1699-1751) and Fuga (1699-1780) in Italy; Blondel (1705-1774)
and Chalgrin (1789-18 11) in France; James Stuart (17 13-1788) and
Robert Adam (1728-1792) in England.
Gardening: reaction from the classical style of Le Notre and from the
lOo Music in the i8th Century.
formal Dutch garden; cultivation of natural beauty; introduction of
landscape gardening; the " English garden" ; Kent (i 684-1 748); "Ca-
pability " Brown (i 715-1783).
Music in the i8th century: while the graphic arts decline in origi-
nality and vitality, music with improvement of musical instruments,
the growth of the orchestra, and the better understanding of its theory
and principles, became the most original and characteristic expression
of 1 8th century civilization; importance of music as a civilizing agent ;
immense popularity of the opera ; Italy was the home of the opera,
which absorbed' all minds there ; the opera in France, Austria, Eng-
land; invention and growth of the oratorio in England; development
of German music; harmony; the age of the great masters, culminating
in Beethoven (i 770-1827).
Music in Italy: development of the opera, the mass and the song;
melody; the great singers of the i8th century; Farinelli (1705-1782);
Caflfarelli (1758-1826); the composers of the Neapolitan school; Leo
(1694-1742); Piccini (1728-1800); Paisiello (1741-1816); Cimarosa
(1749-1801); the Venetian school; the teaching of singing ; Porpora
(1687-1767).
Music in France: Rameau (1683-1764); the opera in France; the
rivalry between Gluck and Piccini ; cultivation of musical taste in
France in the direction of theatrical music; Gretry (i 741-18 13); Mehul
(1763-1817).
Music in England : the opera ; rivalry between Handel and Bonon-
cini ; the greatness of Handel (i 684-1 759); development of the oratorio;
church music in England.
Music in Germany: the first great master, Johann Sebastian Bach
(1685-1750); the opera in Germany; Gluck (1714-1787); Mozart (1756-
1791); Mozart and his influence on the development of music; his
operas and masses ; his orchestral compositions ; music and its head-
quarters at Vienna ; Haydn (173 2-1 809); importance of music in Ger-
man civilization.
Popularity of experimental science in the i8th century : men of
science occupied wi':h the application and extension of the scientific
knowledge and of the discoveries made in the 17th century; application
of science to industrial ilevelopment.
Science in the i8th Century. l6i
The great mathematicians : Euler (i 707-1 783); De Moivre (1667-
1754); D'Alembert (1717-1783) ; Lagrange C1736-1813) : Laplace
( 1 749-1 827); \X\^ Mecaniquc celeste; Monge (1746-18 18) and descrip-
tive geometry.
The great biologists: Morgagni (1682-1771) and anatomy; Spallan-
zani (17 1 9-1 799) and his discoveries on the nature of blood; introduc-
tion of vaccination; Jenner (1749- 1823).
The great naturalists: BufFon (1707-1788); Daubenton (1716-1800);
Lacepede (1756-1825); Lamarck (1744-1829).
The great botanists : Linnaeus (i 707-1 778) and his classification of
plants; Jussieu (1747- 1836) and the natural order.
The great mineralogists and geologists : Werner (1750-18 17); Haiiy
(1743-1822) the founder of mineralogy; Dolomieu (1750-1801).
The great astronomers: Clairaut (1713-1765) ; Maupertuis (1698-
1756); Bradley (1692-1762); Herschel (1738-1822) and" the discovery
of Uranus; Lalande (1732-1807); Bailly (1736-1793) and the history of
astronomy.
The great physicists: influence of Newton (1642-1727); Franklin
(1706-1790) and electricity; Volta (1745-1827) and the voltaic pile;
Galvani (1737-1798) and galvanism ; Reaumur (1683-1757) and the
improvements in the thermometer ; Fontana (1730- 1803); influence of
the discoveries of Priestley and Lavoisier on physics.
The great chemists: Cavendish (1731-1810); Lavoisier (1743- 1794)
and Priestley (1733-1805), and the resolution of air and water into their
component parts ; Berthollet ("1748-1822); Scheele (1742-1786).
The first balloons (1783); Etienne Montgolfier (i 740-1 799 ; Joseph
Montgolfier (1745-1810); Pilatre de Rozier (1756-1785).
Application of scientific discoveries: Watt (1736-1819), and the
steam engine ; Boulton (1728- 1809); Hargreaves (d. 1770), Arkwright
(1732-1792), Crompton (1753-1827) and Cartwright (1743-1823) and
the development of textile industry.
Improvements in civil engineering: extension of canals ; the Duke
of Bridgewater (1736-1803) and Brindley (1716-1772) in England; the
Ladoga canal in Russia; Munnich (1683-1767); other canals; drain-
ing of marshes; harbour improvements; lighthouses; Smeaton (I724-
I792); foundation of the Ecole des ponts ct chatissScs (1747); the work of
Perronet ( 1708-1794').
1 62 The French Revolution.
The practical character of the i8th century is to be seen in its appli-
cation of science to human needs.
5^
LECTURE 54.
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.
LXJie elections to the States- General : Mounier (b. 1758, d. 1806) and v*!
Sieyes (b. 1748, d. 1836); ** the revolt of the cures" ; the cahiers. i/^ ' ^y
Meeting of the States-General (5 May, 1789): the struggle between '
the Orders ; the States- General declared to be the National Assembly
(17 June); the Oath of the Tennis Court (20 June); the siance royale
(23 June); Mirabeau (b. 1749); concentration of troops around Paris ;
capture of the Bastille7i4 July); visit of Eouis XVI to Paris (17 July);
Bailly (b. 1736, d. i^^) appointed Mayor and La Fayette (b. 1757, d.
1834) Commander of the National Guard of Paris.
Anarchy in France : -breakdown of the administrative S3^stem ; the
*' great fear "; restoration of order by local eilort.
The Constituent Assembly at Versailles : the* Declaration of the
Rights of Man ; the night of 4 August ; the questions of royal veto on
legislation and of one or two houses in the legislature ; approach of
national bankruptcy ; Necker and Mirabeau.
The King and royal family brought to Paris (6 Oct., 1789), followed
by the Assembly ; character and policy of La Fayette.
The work of the Constituent Assembly : the Constitution of 1791 ;
division of France into departments ; establishment of elective local
government; abolition of the old law courts, and creation of a new
judicial system ; the civil constitution of the clergy and its results;
the mania for election ; weakening of the central executive authority ;
abolition of the relics of feudalism ; the financial situation and its re-
sults ; first^issue of assignats.
Political history of the Constituent Assembly : effective authority
passes from the King to the Assembly ; its refusal to undertake openly
the responsibility of executive government; decree of 7 Nov., 1789;
disorganization of the civil administration, of the army and the navy ;
The French Revolution. 163
repression of the military mutiny at Nancy by Bouille (31 Aug., 1790);
the advice to the Court and the plans of Mirabeau ; death of Mirabeau
(2 Apr., 1 791); nature of the opposition to the Revolution ; attitude of
the Court ; attitude of the Church ; the ^migr^s ; enthusiasm of the
people for the Revolution ; the Federation of 14 July, 1790.
The foreign policy of the Constituent Assembly : the debate on the
declaration of peace and war (May, 1790); danger of foreign war;
Mirabeau, reporter of the Diplomatic Committee ; the three questions
which gave rise to foreign complications: (i) the affair of Avignon ;
(2) the affair of Nootka Sound, involving the maintenance of the Facte
de Famille ; (3) interference with the rights of the Princes of the Em-
pire in Alsace.
Endeavors of Mirabeau to avoid foreign war ; the Queen, Marie An-
toinette, looked to her brother, the Emperor Leopold II, for help ; the
people believed the Court desirous of suppressing the Revolution by
calling in foreign aid.
The flight to Varennes (21 June, 1791): its effect ; definite and open
breach between the King and the Revolution > the massacre of the
Champ de Mars (17 July, 1791); the Manifesto of Padua issued by the
Emperor Leopold (6 July); the Declaration^of Pilnitz, signed by the
Emperor Leopold and Frederick William II. of Prussia, threatening
France (27 Aug.); the Constitution of 1791 accepted by Louis XVI.;
dissolution of the Constituent Assembly (21 Sept.).
Growth of public opinion : means of influencing it ; importance of
the newspaper press ; the journalists ; Marat (b. 1744, d. 1793),' Camilla
Desmoulins (b. 1762, d. 1794), and Loustalot (b. 1762, d. 1790); im-
portance of the clubs ; the Jacobin Club ; the Cordeliers Club ; the
provincial clubs.
The Municipality or Commune of Paris.
The Legislative Assembly : influence of the Girondin orators ; their
war policy; Brissot (b. 1754, d. 1793); their decrees against the emigres;
Louis XVI. 's demands of the Rhenish Electors ; French armies raised
and diiected to the frontier under Rochambeau, La Fayette and Liick-
ner ; debates on the expediency of war with Austria in the Legislative
Assembly and in the Jacobin Club ; declared opposition to the alliance
with Austria ; attitude of the Emperor Leopold ; his death ( i March
164 The French Revolution.
1792); v/ar declared by France against Austria (20 Apr., 1792); the
policy of Dumouriez (b. 1739, d. 1823); position of I^ouis XVI. and
Marie Antoinette.
Europe and the French Revolution : contemptuous views originally
held by foreign rulers who believed that the Revolution would destroy
the position of France among the nations ; apprehension felt, as time
went on, in the states bordering on France of the contagion of demo-
cratic principles ; admiration at first felt in England for the French
Revolution ; effect of Burke's writings ; attitude towards the French
Revolution of the Tsaritsa Catherine, Frederick William II. of Prussia,
and Gustavus III. of Sweden.
Effect of the outbreak of war en the development and internal his-
tory of the French Revolution.
Authorities : The best small books on the French Revolution are Mignet,
Histoire de la Revolution fran^aise, translated into Knglish ; Carnot, La Revolu-
tion fran^aise ; and B. M. Gardiner, The French Revolution ; Morse Stephens,
Europe, 1789-1815, lays special weight on the European relations of the Revolu-
tion. Among secondary histories, Carlyle, The French Revolution, is a prose
epic but not a trustworthy history ; MicheleVs history is likewise rather a rhapsody
than a history ; Louis Blanc and Thiers are out of date ; Taine, La Revolution, is
able and interesting, but prejudiced ; Morse Stephens^ History of the French Revo-
lution, vol. I (1789-91), vol. 2 (1791-1793) is an attempt to summarize the latest
authorities. Among secondary works of a special character may be noted ; for
the elections to the States- General, Chassin^ Le gdnie de la Revolution; for the
cahiers. Champion, La France de 1789 d' apres les cahiers ; for Mirabeau, Lominie,
Les Mirabeau, 5 vols., MezQres,W\e de Mirabeau, and Stern, Das Leben Mirabeaus ;
for the financial history, Stourm, Les finances de I'Ancien Regime et de la Revolu-
tion ; for the ecclesiastical history, Sciout, Histoire de la constitution civile du
clerge ; for the army, Duruy, L'arm^e royale en 1789, lung, Dubois-Cranc6, and
Maire, Histoire de Tafifaire de Nancy ; for the flight to Varennes, Fournel,
L'evenement de Varennes, and Br owning, "Da^ Flight to Varennes ; and for a careful
and modern sketch of the statesmen of the period, Aulard, Les Orateurs de
I'Assemblee Constituante, and Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la Convention.
Numerous volumes on the Revolution in the provinces have been published, among
which may be noted Seilhac, Scenes et portraits de la Revolution en Bas-Limousin,
Desmasures, Histoire de la Revolution dans le department de I'Aisne. Bouvier, Les
Vosges pendant la Revolution, Lecesne, Arras sous la '^€yo\vX\ou, Babeau, Troyes
pendant la Revolution, and the numerous volumes on Auvergne published by
Mege. Upon the foreign policy of the Revolution and the relations of Revolu-
The French Revolution, 165
tionary France with Europe all earlier books have been superseded by Sorely
L' Europe et la Revolution fran^aise ; but reference may also be made to Sybel.
Geschichte der Revolutionszeit von 1789 bis 1800, 5 vols., of which the first 3 vols,
have been translated into English by Perry. With regard to primary authori-
ties, notice must first be taken of such contemporary histories as Rabaut Saint-
^iienne^ Precis historique de la Revolution fran9aise, Lameth, Histoire de I'Assem-
blde constituante, ''Deux Amis^\ Histoire de la Revolution fraujaise, and of the
files of contemporary newspapers, especially the Mo7iiteur^ of which a reprint
was published in 1850. Many valuable collections of documents, very carefully
edited, have recently been published at the expense of the French government, of
the municipality of Paris, etc., among which should be noted the Archives Par-
lementaires ed. Mavidal and Laurent ; Recueil des actes relatifs k la convocation
des Etats G^ndraux de 1789, ed. Brette ; Assembl^e ^lectorale de Paris, ed. Chata-
vay ; I^cs Elections et les cahiers de Paris en 1789, ed. Chassin, and La Soci^te des
Jacobins, ed. Aulard. Many documents of value have likewise been published by
the Societe de V histoire de la Revolution fran^aise, and by the Societe d' histoire
contemporaine, and have appeared in the special periodicals devoted to Revolu-
tionary History, namely the Revue de la Revolution, which came to an end in 1889,
and the Revolution Frangaise^ ed. Aulard, which is still in course of publication.
Numerous memoirs have been published in the collections edited by Berville and
Barri^re, and by Barriire and Lescure, among which may be specially noted those
of Baillyy Bouille^ Ferrit^res, Brissot and Weber ; not published in these collec-
tions may be noted the Mdmoires oi Malouet, Mallet du Pan, Beugnot and Bertrand
de Moleville. Of primary importance for Mirabeau's policy is his Correspondance
avec La Marck, ed. Bacourt. Mirabeau's most important speeches have been pub-
lished in Morse Stephens, Orators of the French Revolution.
For the attitude of foreign countries towards the French Revolution, see in addi-
tion to Sorel, Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France ; Mackintosh, Vin-
diciae Gallicse ; Romilly, Memoirs; Gower, Despatches from Paris 1790-92. e«^
Browning; Jefferson, Writings, ed Ford and Memoir, Correspondence and Mis
cellanies, ed. Randolph; Couvern/ ur Morris, Mettiorial, and Diary and Lt-tters ;
Geffroy, Gustaye IH. et la cour de France, and Larivi^re, Catherine H. et la Revo-
lution fran^aise.
LECTURE 55.
THE BELGIAN REVOLUTION, AND THE POLICY OF THE
EMPEROR LEOPOLD IL
The extent of insurrectionary feeling in the Austrian dominions in
1789 : contrast between the popular movements in the Austrian do-
minions and in France ; causes of this contrast.
c
1 66 The Belgian Revolution.
The opposition to the policy of Joseph II. reached its height in the
Austrian Netherlands.
The Belgian Revolution of 1789 : Maria Theresa's government of the
Austrian Netherlands ; the administrations of Charles of Lorraine
(1744-81) and of the Archduchess Maria Christina (1781-93); Joseph's
policy in the Austrian Netherlands; he enraged the Belgians, (i) by
his political measures infringing their local liberties and rights of local
self-government ; (2) by his religious policy and attempts to introduce
secular education ; the clerical opposition led by Cardinal Frankenberg,
Archbishop of Malines ; stern suppression of riots in the Belgian cities ;
Joseph abolished the constitution of Hainault (31 Jan., 1789), and of
Brabant (18 June, 1789); the Belgian exiles, encouraged by the Triple
Alliance, raised an army at Breda.
The army of Belgian patriots under Van der Mersch crossed the fron-
tier (23 Oct.): general insurrection; evacuation of Brussels (12 Dec),
and abandonment of the Catholic Netherlands by the Austrian troops ;
meeting of a general convention at Brussels ; constitution promulgated
for the Belgian Republic (10 Jan., 1790); formation of the United
States of Belgium ; influence of Van der Noot (b. 1735, d. 1827); in-
dependence declared; death of the Emperor Joseph (20 Feb., 1790).
The two parties in Belgium— the Van der Nootists or Statists, and
the Vonckists or Democrats : the Statists persecuted the Democrats,
and drove their leaders from the country ; jealousy felt of Van der
Noot ; the Emperor Leopold offered to restore the government of the
Austrian Netherlands as it had existed under Maria Theresa ; the^oger
rejected by the Belgian leaders ; the country entirely re-occupied by the
Austrians without a blow (Nov.-Dec, 1790).
Comparison of the Belgian with the French Revolution.
The Revolution in Liege : the people of Liege rose in insurrection
and expelled the Prince-Bishop (16-18 Aug., 1789) ; the Prussians
restored the authority of the Bishop (Nov., 1789); the Austrians eventu-
ally occupied Liege, at the request of the princes of the neighboring
Circle, and restored the Bishop (13 Jan., 1791).
The Emperor Leopold II (b. 1747): condition of Austrian affairs at the
time of his accession (20 Feb., 17,9(3}^ his character and previous career
as Grand Duke of Tuscany ; succeeded in Tuscany by his second son,
the Archduke Ferdinand.
Policy of the Emperor Leopold II. 167
Internal policy of Leopold : his concessions to the insurgents and
malcontents in the different provinces ot the House of Hapsburg; he
gave up Joseph's schemes of unification and restored local government
and liberties to provinces not in open insurrection ; he maintained
Joseph's edict of religious toleration and many other reforms, and
quieted the fear among the people of further innovations.
Leopold's foreign policy : first period ; he determined to make peace
with the Turks and to frustrate the schemes of Prussia by breaking up
the Triple Alliance • the relations between Prussia and Poland ; the
Treaty of 29 March, 1790, by which the Poles agreed to cede Thorn
and Dantzig to Prussia in exchange for the retrocession of Austrian
Galicia ; Leopold convinced England and the Dutch that he would
hand over the Austrian Netherlands to France if they supported Prus-
sia in its schemes against Austria ; the Prussians concentrated an army
in Silesia and Leopold an army in Bohemia ; the Conference of Reich-
enbach (June, 1790); hy the Convention of Reichenbach (27 July),
Austria engaged to make peace with the Turks, the Triple Alliance
guaranteed the restoration of Austrian authority in the Netherlands,
and Prussia promised to withdraw its support from the malcontents in
Hungary and Belgium, and to support Leopold's candidature for the
imperial throne ; great diplomatic victory thus won by Leopold ; dis-
missal of Hertzberg from the Prussian foreign office.
Leopold and the Turks : the Armistice of Giurgevo (19 Sept., 1790);
by the Treaty of Sistova (4 Aug., 1791) Austria obtained from the
Turks Old Orsova and part of Croatia.
Leopold and the Hungarians : the position in Hungary consequent
on the measures taken by Joseph ; the Magyar nobles assumed semi-
independence, and sent envoys to Reichenbach ; Leopold marched an
army to Pesth ; he refused to grant semi-independence to Hungary and
appointed his fourth son, Alexander Leopold, to be Palatine of Hun-
gary (12 Nov., 1790) ; submission of the Magyars ; Leopold crowned
King of Hungary (15 Nov.); concessions made to the national pride
of the Magyars.
Leopold and the Empire: crowned Emperor (^9 Oct., 1790); his steps
to win back the leadership of the German princes, which Prussia had
secured by the formation of the Fiirstenbund in 1785; he availed him-
1 68 Policy of the Emperor Leopold II.
self of the opportunity afforded by the disgust of the German priiicts
at the measures taken by the French Constituent Assembly with re-
gard to the rights of the Princes of the Empire in Alsace.
Position of I^eopold in 1791 : success of his diplomacy ; he had re-
stored Austria to the position she had lost under Joseph II. ; he had won
the support of the Triple Alliance ; his attitude towards France.
Leopold's foreign policy: second period; his sister Marie Antoinette
appealed to him for armed help ; Leopold's dislike for war ; the Mani-
festo of Padua (6 July, 1791); Leopold desired to maintain the power of
Louis XVI. because the Franco-Austrian alliance depended upon it ; he
persuaded the King of Prussia to issue the Declaration of Pilnitz with
him (27 Aug., 1 791); he protested, as Emperor, against the violation
of the rights of the Princes of the Empire in Alsace (3 Dec.) and de-
fended the Rhenish princes for sheltering French emigres ( 14 Dec); in
this position he was heartily supported by the Diet of the Empire ; sig-
nature of an offensive and defensive alliance with Frederick William II.
of Prussia (7 Feb., 1792); death of Leopold (i March).
Assassination of Gustavus III. of Sweden (29 March, 1792); his brother
Charles, Duke of Sudermania, regent during the minority of Gusta-
vus IV., pursued a neutral policy.
Parties at the Court of Prussia : Frederick William II. determined to
adhere to the alliance with Austria, and after the death of Leopold
became the leader of the alliance.
Francis II., eldest son of Leopold, crowned Emperor (14 July, 1792):
the last Holy Roman Emperor.
Victor Amadeus III., King of Sardinia, entered into an alliance with
Austria against France (July, 1792).
Conditions under which the war with France commenced.
Authorities : On Belgium in the i8th century and the Belgian Revolution, see
Juste, Histoire de la Belgique ; Discaitles, Les Pays-Bas sous le regne de Marie
Th^rese ; Piot, Le regne de Marie Therese dans les Pays-Bas autrichiens ; Borg-
nety Histoire des Beiges a la fin du XVIIIieme siecle ; Gachard, Etudes surl'histoire
des Pays-Bas, and Documents sur la revolution beige de 1790 ; Poullet, Mdmoire
sur I'ancienne constitution braban5onne ; A. Wolf, Maria Christina, Erzherzogin
von CEJsterreich, and Leopold II. und Maria Christina, ihr Briefwechsel ; Magnette,
Joseph II. et la liberie de I'Escaut, 1781-85 ; Delplace, Joseph II. et la revolution
brabangonne ; Juste, La revolution braban^onne, Les Vonckistes, La republique
The War of the Freiich Revolution. i(n;
beige, and Le comte de Mercy-Argenteau ct I'Hbandon dc la Belgique ; Ve>hdf;^fH.
Le cardinal de Prankenberg; Thn'nrr. Jean-Henri, comte de Frankenberg, car-
dinal-archeveque de Malines et sa lutte pour la liberty de I'Eglise ; Lorenz, Kaiser
Joseph II. und die Belgische Revolution, nach den Papieren des Grafeu Murray, in
his Drei Biicher Geschichte und Politik ; Zeissherg, Zwei Jahre Belgischcr Gc-
schichte ( in the Sitzuugsberichie des kaiserlichen Akademie liir VVisseuschaft, 1891 ) ;
Artieth Sind, Flammennont, Correspondance secrete du Comte de Mercy-Argeuieau
avcc I'empereur Joseph II. et le prince de Kaunitz ; Discailles, Lc g6ndral Van der
Mersch avant la revolution braban^onne, and Alexandre de Bronx ; Galestoot^
Chronique des ^v^nements les plus remarquables arrives a Bruxellcs (1780-1827);
Gerard, Rapedius de Berg, m^moires et documents pour servir a I'hisioire de la
revolution braban^onne ; Van de Spiegel, ZijneTijdgenooten, ed. Vreede, and Staes,
De Belgische Republiek van 1790. On the revolution in Liege, see Borgnet, His-
toire de la revolution liegeoise de 1789 ; C. W. von Dohm, Die Liitticher Revolu-
tion von 1789, and Chestret, Papiers dc Jean Remi de Chestret pour servir k I'his-
toire de la revolution liegeoise. For the policy of Leopold, see Schels, Geschichte
CEsterreichs unter der Regierung Leopolds II.; Zeissberg, Kaiser Leopold II. (in
AUgemeine Deutsche Biographic); Sorely L'Europe et la Revolution fran^aise ;
Von Sybel, Geschichte der Revolution szeit ; Vivenot, Quellen zur Geschichte der
deutschen Kaiserpolitik CEsterreichs wahrend der Franzosischen Revolutions-
kriege ; Huffer, Diplomatische Verhandlungen aus der Zeit der Franzosischen
Revolution; Beer, Joseph II., Leopold IT. und Kaunitz, and Leopold II., Franz
II. und Catharina, ihre Correspondenz, nebst einer Eiuleitung zur Geschichte der
Politik Leopolds 11. ; Vivenot, Die Politik des oesterreichischen Staatskanzlers
Fiirsten Kaunitz-Rietberg unter Kaiser Leopold II., and Crenx, Pitt et Frederic
GuiUaume II., I'Angleterre et la Prusse devant la question d'Orienten 1790 et 1791.
LECTURE h^.
THE WAR OF THE FRENCH REPUBLIC AGAINST EUROPE.
French reverses at the commencement of the war : the invasion of
the Tuileries (20 June, 1792); the proclamation of the Duke of Bruns-
wick ; the plan of campaign ; the Austrians invaded French Flanders,
and the Prussians, Lorraine and Champagne ; rapid advance of the in-
vaders ; excitement in Paris ; general belief in France that the Court
sympathized with the invaders ; capture of the Tuileries and suspen-
sion of the King (10 Aug.) ; summons of a National Convention.
170 The War of the French Revolution,
Desperate efforts made for the defense of France : the work of Dan-
ton (b. 1759, d. 1794) and of Vergniaud (b. 1759, d. 1793); desertion of
La Fayette (20 Aug.); capture of Verdun by the Prussians (2 Sept.);
the massacres in the prisons of Paris (2-6 Sept.); the Prussians re-
pulsed by Dumouriez at Valmy (20 Sept.); retreat of the Duke of
Brunswick ; gallant defense of Lille.
Meeting of the National Convention (20 Sept., 1792); declaration of
the French Republic ; parties in the Convention ; the Girondins and
the Mountain ; the Marsh or Plain ; Louvet's attack on Robespierre
(29 Oct.) and Robespierre's reply (5 Nov.).
Successes of the French armies : attack made upon the King of Sar-
dinia ; Montesquiou occupied Savoy, and Anselme, Nice (Sept., 1792) ;
Custine invaded Germany and took Spires (i Oct.), Worms (4 Oct.)
and Mawnce (21 Oct.) ; Dumouriez invaded the Austrian Nether-
lands, defeated the Austrians at Jemappes (6 Nov.), and occupied the
whole of Belgium and Liege ; excitement and delight caused in
France by these successes ; the Revolutionary Propaganda ; decree of
19 November ; Savoy declared annexed to the French Republic (27
Nov.), and Belgium (15 Dec).
The debates in the Convention ; trial of Louis XVI. ; his execution
(21 Jan., 1793).
Dumouriez's plan for conquering the United Provinces : France de-
clared war against King George III. and the Stadtholder William V.
(i Feb., 1793) ; other countries joined in the war against France,
namely, Spain, Portugal, Tuscany, the Two Sicilies, and eventually, on
22 March, the Holy Roman Empire ; Sweden, Denmark, Switzerland,
Geneva, Genoa, Venice, the Turks and the United States of America
remained neutral ; attitude of the Tsaritsa Catherine.
Change in the character of the war : want of discipline in the French
army and navy; England became the paymaster of the coalition; the
policy of Pitt and Grenville in England ; Thugut (b. 1734, d. 18 18) be-
came chief minister in Austria, and Haugwitz (b. 1752, d. 1832) in
Prussia.
Campaign of the spring and summer of 1793 : failure of Dumouriez's
military operations (Feb. -March); the Austrinns under the Prince of
Coburg defeated Dumouriez at Neerwinden (18 March), and, with the
The Reign of Terror. lyi
help of the English under the Duke of York, drove the French out of
Belgium ; desertion of Dumouriez (5 April); the English and Austrian
army invaded France and took Conde (15 July) and Valenciennes (28
July); Custine driven from Germany (March); the Prussians under
Brunswick took Mayence (23 July), crossed the frontier (August) and
defeated the French at Pirmasens (14 Sept. ); the Austrians and Imperi-
alists under Wurmser invaded Alsace, laid siege to Landau, and carried
the lines of Wissembourg (13 Oct.); French attacks repulsed by the Sar-
dinians ; Toulon occupied by the English and Spaniards under Hood
and Langara (28 Aug.); the Spaniards invaded France at both enSs of
the Pyrenees.
Effect of these disasters on the Convention : decree for the levy of
300,000 men (24 Feb.); establishment of the Revolutionary Tribunal (9
March) and of the first Committee of Public Safety (7 Apr.); struggle
between the Girondins and the Mountain ; overthrow of the Girondins,
(31 May-2 June).
Outbreak of civil war : the insurrection in the Vendee ; the rising
in Normandy ; revolt of Bordeaux, Lyons, Marseilles and Toulon.
Thg_ Constitution of 179,^ : formation of the Great Committee of
Public Safety (July-Sept., 1793); it established the Reign of Terror.
The Reign of Terror in France : the Law of the Maximum ; the
Law of the Suspects (17 Sept.); suspension of the Constitution of 179;;
and autocracy of the Great Committee ; causes of the power of the
Great Committee ; its chief means for maintaining its authority: (i)
the Revolutionary Tribunal ; executions in Paris ; (2) the Representa-
tives on Mission ; their repression of internal disturbances ; the Grea^
Committee restored discipline in the army and navy, and concentrated
the resources of France for the foreign war ; incidents of the Reign of
Terror ; the Worship of Reason ; the Novades^at Nantes.
Campaign of the ^all and winter of 1793 : plans of Carnot (b. 1753.
d. 1823); Houchard raised the siege of Dunkirk and defeated the Duke
of York at Hondschoten (8 Sept.); Jourdan (b. 1762, d. 1833) raised
the siege of Maubeuge and defeated the Prince of Coburg at Wattig-
nies (16 Oct.); Hoche (b. 1768, d. 1797), after being defeated by the
Prussians at Kaiserslautern (28-30 Nov.), combined operations with
Pichegru (b. 1761, d. 1804); battle of the Geisberg (26 Dec); relief of
172 The War of the ]rrt7ich Revolution,
lyandau (28 Dec); retreat of the Prussians to Mayence ; the Aus-
trians and Imperialists driven across the Rhine ; Toulon recovered
by Dugommier (19 Dec); the Spaniards driven across the Pyrenees ;.
capture of Lyons (9 Oct.) and defeats of the Vendeans at Le Mans (12
Dec.) and Savenay (22 Dec).
Opposition to the Great Committee of Public Safety and to the Reign
of Terror in the Convention and in Paris ; exejcution of the Hebertists
(24 March, 1794) and of the Dantonists (5 April); increased stringency
of the Reign of Terror ; the position of Robespierre (b. 1758); decree
establishing the Worship of the Supreme Being (7 May).
Naval operations : occupation of Corsica by the English under Hood
and Graham (May-June, 1794); George III. offered the throne of Cor-
sica (June); conquest of the French West Indies by Grey and Jervis ;
Martinique (22 March, 1794), Tobago and Guadeloupe (April, 1794); the
situation in San Domingo ; occupation of the French settlements in
India (1793); attempt of Jeanbon Saint-Andre to revive the French
navy; defeat of the Brest fleet by Howe (b. 1722, d. 1799) in the Battle
of the First of June (1794).
Campaign of 1794 : organization of the volunteer army ; work of
Dubois-Crance ; victories of the French armies ; Jourdan defeated the
Austrians at Fleurus (26 June), and with Pichegru occupied Belgium ;
Rend Moreaux (b. 1758, d. 1795) defeated the Prussians near Kaisers-
lautern (12-14 July) and occupied Treves (9 Aug.); the French de-
feated the Sardinians on the Italian frontier and occupied the passes of
the Alps (May); invasion of Spain by Dagobert and Muller at both
ends of the Pyrenees (May-June).
With the French victories and the repulse of the invaders the neces-
sity for submitting to the Reign of Terror ceased ; identification of ^
Robespierre and his friends with the Reign of Terror ; the Revolution jC\
of 9 Thermidor (27 July); execution of Robespierre and his friends (28 0"
July); end of the Reign of Terror.
Characteristics of the Reign of Terror in France ; triumph of the
French Republic over the powers of Europe.
Authorities : In addition to the general works cited under Lecture 54 should
be noted the following special secondary works : For the summer of 1792 and
the overthrow of the monarchy, Mortimer- TernauXy Histoire de la Terreur ; for
The Reign of Stanislas Poniatovski. 173
the Girondins, Vatel, Vergniaud ; Dauban, Madame Roland ; Guadet^ Les Giron-
dins, aud Eire, La Idgeude des Giroudius, which explodes the fancies of Lamar-
tine and others ; for the overthrow of the Girondins, IVallon, La R<ivolution de 31
Mai, and for the wandering of the escaped deputies, yate/, Charlotte Corday ct les
Girondins ; for the Committee of Public Safety, Gros, Le Comity de salut public ;
for the Revolutionary Tribunal, Campardon, Histoire du Tribunal r^volutionnaire,
and Wallon, Histoire du Tribunal r^volutionnaire de Paris, and for the deputies on
mission, IVal/on, Les Representants du peuple en mission ; for the worship of
Reason, Aulatd, Le culte de la Raison et le culte de I'Etre Supreme ; for the
army, Rousset, Les volontaires (1791-94), and lung, Dubois-Cranc^ ; for the navy,
Chevalier^ Histoire de la marine fran9aise sous la premiere Republique ; James,
Naval History of Great Britain (1793-1820); Jollivet, Les Anglais dans la Medi-
terranee (.I794"97)» ^"^ royaume Anglo Corse ; Mahan, Influence of Sea- Power
upon the French Revolution aud Empire ; for the war upon the frontiers, Chu-
quel, Les guerres de la Revolution, 9 vols.; Krebs and Moris, Campagnes des
Alpes peudant la Revolution ; Fervel, Campagnes de la Revolution fran^aise dans
les Pyrenees orientales, and Ducere, L'arm^e des Pyr^n^es occidentales ; and for
the Vend^an war, Chassin, La preparation de la guerre de Vendue, and La Vendue
patriote. Among biographies should be specially noted Robinet, Danton ;
Hamel, Histoire de Robespierre, and Histoire de Saint-Just ; Chevremont, Marat ;
Avenely Anacharsis Cloots ; Clareiie, Camille et Lucile Desmoulins, and Reynaud,
Merlin de Thionville. To the primary authorities cited under Lecture 54
should be added Aulard, Recueil des actes du Comit^ de salut public, and Oiar-
avay. La correspondance gen^rale de Carnot ; and to the memoirs cited under
Lecture 54, the Mdmoires oi Dumouriez, Madame Roland, Senart, and Choudieu^
together with Lacretelle, Dix annees d'epreuves.
LECTURE 57.
THE SECOND AND THIRD PA. ITIONS OF POLAND.
The reign of Stanislas Poniatovski ib. 1732, elected King of Poland
1764, d.'i798).
The designs of the Tsaritsa Catherine for the further partition of
Poland : the Poles after the death of Frederick the Great began to
look for help to Prussia, which desired to annex Thorn and Dantzig ;
the Treaty of Warsaw (29 March, 1790) ; the action of the Polish en-
174 T^^^^ Polish Constitution of lygi.
voys at the Conference of Reichenbach (June, 1790); the independent
attitude of Poland in 1790.
Internal reforms effected in Poland during the reign of Stanislas : at-
tempts made to create a national army to take the place of the feudal
army, to establish a national system of finance, and to provide a na-
tional scheme of education ; the aims of the Polish patriots ; they de-
sired to make Poland a state instead of a loose confederation of nobles ;
attitude of Russia, Prussia and Austria towards the reform party in
Poland.
Meeting of the Constituent Diet (6 Oct., 1788); it appointed a com-
mittee to draw up a new constitution for Poland, raised the national
army to 60,000 men, and decreed a large lev}^ of taxes.
The Polish Constitution of 1791: accepted by the Diet (3 May,i79i);
mainly the work of Kollontai (b. 1752, d. 181 2); it abolished the elec-
tive monarchy,, the liberum veto, the right to confederate and the capit-
ulations ; it declared the throne of Poland hereditary in the House of
Saxony after the Jeath of Stanislas ; it created a regular government
conferring the legislative authority on the king, senate and elected
chamber, and the executive authority on the king aided by six minis-
ters responsible to the legislature ; the middle classes of the cities were
admitted to political rights and allowed to elect deputies to the legisla-
ture ; the nobility agreed to pay taxes to the extent of ten per cent, of
their income : serfdom was not abolished, but the Diet declared its will-
ingness to give all arrangements, made between a lord and his serfs for
the benefit of the latter, the sanction of the law.
Comparison between the French and the Polish constitutions of 179 1.
Prussia and Austria at Pilnitz acknowledged the new Polish Consti-
tution, but Catferine of Russia, fearing it would make Poland a strong
state, determined to overthrow it ; formation of the Confederation of
Tar go vitsa, which protested against the Constitution of 1791, and the
abolition of the liberum veto ; request of the Confederates to Cathe-
rine to aid them ; her manifesto declaring herself the guarantor of the
ancient Polish Constitution (18 May, 1792); a Russian army under
Suvorov invaded Poland ; the Russians defeated Joseph Poniatovski
at Zielence (18 June) and g^osciuszko (b. 1746, d. 18.17) at Dubienka (17
July); Kollontai and the Polish constitutional leaders driven into exile;
a Diet summoned and forced to abrogate the Constitution of 1791.
The Final Partition of Pola7id^ n95- ^75
Frederick William II. of Prussia refused to aid the Polish patriots
and sent a Prussian army into Poland ; it was owing to his interests in
Poland that he decreased his efforts against France after the campaign
of Valmy. (-i-^i., I'l'^ *>, H "7 ^''
Second treaty of partition signed by Catherine and Frederick William
(4 Jan., m^), and agreed to by Stanislas and the Polish Diet at Grodno
under the pressure of Russian troops (24 Sept., 1793); by this second
partition Russia annexed Minsk, Podolia, Volhynia and Little Russia,
while Prussia received Posen, Gnezen, Kalisch and the cities of Dant-
zig and Thorn ; disgust of the Emperor Francis II. and of Thugut at
Austria's receiving no share in the second partition of Poland ; their
resolution that the war witEi the French Republic should not prevent
them from looking after Austrian interests in Poland.
The Polish insurrection of 1794 : the standard of national indepen-
dence raised by Kosciuszko at Cracow (23 March); general insurrec-
tion throughout Poland ; Kosciuszko defeated the Russians at Racla-
wice (4 Apr.) and occupied Warsaw (19 Apr.); the Prussians besieged
Warsaw (July-Sept., 1794); retirement of the Prussians; invasion of
Poland by a Russian army under Suvcrov ; Kosciuszko defeated and
taken prisoner at Ma^yjnwice (12 Oct.); capture of Warsaw (9 Nov.);
complete overthrow of the patriots.
Third and final partition of Poland (3 Jan., 1795): Prussia received
Warsaw and the neighboring provinces ; Austria received Cracow and
the rest of Galicia ; Russia rectified its frontier as arranged in 1793;
extinction of Poland as an independent state.
Stanislas Poniatovski removed from Poland (7 Jan., 1795); his abdi-
cation (25 Nov., 1795).
Causes of the failure of Poland to maintain her independence ; com-
parison between the Polish insurrection of 1794 and the successful na-
tional resistance of France to foreign invaders in the same year.
Influence of Polish affairs upon the progress of the war against
France : weakening of the Prussian and Austrian armies upon the
French frontier ; commencement of dissensions between Prussia and
Austria.
Authorities : In addition to Sorel, Von der Briiggen, Ferrand,fin(\ Angfberg,
cited under Lecture 42, see Lelewel, Geschichte Polens unter Stanislaus Augustus,
176 The Policy of the Thermidoriayis.
translated into German, and his Analyse et parallele des trois constitutions polo-
naises de 1791, 1807 et 1815, translated into French; Kalinka, Der vierjahrige
Polnische Reichstag (1788-1791); Kollontai, Vom Entslehen und Untergange der
Polnischen Konstitution vom 3 May, 1791, translated into German by 5. B. Linde;
Bain, The Second Partition of Poland (Eng. Hist. Rev., vol. 6); Adam Czartoryski,
Memoires et Correspondance ; Oginski, Memoires sur la Pologne et les Polonais
de 1788 a 1815 ; Smitt, Suworrow und Polens Untergang ; Herrmaftn, Die GEster-
reichisch-Preussische Allianz von 7 Feb., 1792, und die zweite Theilung Polens;
Zeissberg, Geschichte der Raiimung Belgiens und des Polnischen Aufstandes,
1794 (in the Archiv fiir C^sterreichische Geschichte, Vol. Ixxii.); Vivenot, Quel-
len zur Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserpolitik GBsterreichs wahrend der Fran-
zos schen Revolutionskriege, vol. v.; Sybel, Geschichte der Revolutionszeit ; and
Sorel, L' Europe et la Revolution fran^aise.
L E C T U R E 58.
THE TREATIES OF BASI,E.
The government of the Thermidorians in France : they continued
the system of vigorous organization and centralization initiated by the
Great Committee of Public Safety, but discontinued the bloodshed of
the Reign of Terror.
The internal policy of the Thermidorians : they retained the su-
premacy of the Committees of Government and the power of the Dep-
uties on Mission ; rising cry for vengeance against the Terrorists ;
execution of Carrier (16 Dec, 1794); decree closing the Jacobin Club
(12 Nov., 1794) and repeal of the Law of the Maximum (24 Dec, 1794);
readmission to the Convention of most of the proscribed Girondins (8
Dec, 1794), and of the remainder (8 March, 1795).
Foreign policy of the Thermidorians : the continued victories of the
republican armies changed the attitude of France from that of a nation
fighting for existence to that of a conqueror; Merlin of Douai (b. 1754,
d. 1838) defined the bases on which France might honorably make
peace (4 Dec, 1794), and the Convention finally abandoned the idea of
the Revolutionary Propaganda.
The War oj the French Revolution. 177
Campaign of 1794-5 •
The French under Pichegru conquered the Protestant Netherlands :
occupation of Amsterdam and capture of the Dutch fleet in the Texel
(20 Jan., 1795); withdrawal of the English army to England; the
Thermidorians refused to annex the Protestant Netherlands ; return of
the Dutch " Patriots" who had been exiled in 1787 ; organization of
the Batavian Republic; the mission of Sieyes and Reubell:, alliance
signed between the French and Batavian Republics (16 May, 1795).
Jourdan defeated the Austrians at Aldenhoven (2 Oct., 1794), and
occupied Aix-la-Chapelle, Bonn, Cologne (9 Oct.; and Coblentz (22
Oct.); two French armies invaded Spain, that of the Eastern Pyrenees
under Dugommier took Figueras (27 Nov., 1794) and under Perig-
non took Rosas (3 Feb., 1795) and that of the Western Pyrenees under
Moncey took Vittoria (17 July, 1795) and Bilbao (19 July); defeat by
Hoche of the Emigres landed at Quiberon Bay from English ships (July,
1795)-
Result of French victories at home and abroad.
Increasing vehemence of the attacks on the Terrorist leaders ; the
Thermidoiians ousted from power by the returned Girondins and depu-
ties of the Marsh ; influence of the Jeunesse Doree in Paris ; popular in-
surrections and attacks on the Convention on 12 Germinal (i April, 1795),
and on i Prairial (20 May); disarmament of the Faubourg Saint- An-
toine ; execution of Fouquier-Tinville (8 May) and abolition of the
Revolutionary Tribunal (31 May); reaction in the provinces against
the Terrorists ; the * ' White Terror ' ' in the South ; preparations made
for drawing up a new constitution for France ; death of the Dauphin,
de jure Louis XVII. (8 June).
Changed attitude of Europe towards France : general readiness to
make peace with France, now that she had abandoned the Revolution-
ary Propaganda and had shown herself too formidable to be conquered ;
commencement of negotiations for peace ; treaty of peace signed with
Tuscany (9 Feb., 1795); the French Republic thus received into the
comity of nations.
The negotiations at Basle between Barthdlemy (b. 1750, d. 1830) for
France and Hardeaber.g (b. 1750, d. 1822) for Prussia: the demands
made by the French Republic ; the question of the natural limits of
1 78 , The Treaties of Basle.
France ; treaty of peace signed with Prussia (5 April, 1795); line of
demarcation established, protecting the Northern States of Germany
from French invasion ; importance of this provision, which placed
North Germany under obligations to Prussia ; by a secret article Prus-
sia recognized the river Rhine as a natural boundary of France, and
promised to cede all her possessions on the left bank in exchange for
ecclesiastical states to be secularized in Germany.
The Treaty of Basle with Prussia followed by other treaties signed at
the same place : the most important, the treaty of peace with Spain (22
July); the political situation in Spain ; power of Godoy (b. 1767, d.
185 1), the Queen's lover, who was created Prince of the Peace.
Other treaties signed at Basle : with Hesse-Cassel (28 Aug.), and
other German states.
Importance of the Treaties of Basle in the history of Europe : Prus-
sia's assent to the proposition that the French boundary should be the
Rhine, thus diminishing the Empire, and her readiness to further break
up the Empire by annexing ecclesiastical territory.
Austria's reasons for continuing the war : the policy of Thugut ;
negotiations for the exchange of Madame Ro^le, daughter of Louis
XVI., for certain deputies of the Convention helS prisoners by Austria.
Persistence of England in continuing the war ; influence of the ad-
vice of the French emigres ; popular feeling in England with regard to
the French Republic ; Pitt and Grenville refused to believe in the sta-
bility of the government in France.
Work of the Thermidorians : sudden change in the position of
France from an invaded country, seemingly on the point of dissolution,
to a victorious and triumphant nation.
Authorities : No authoritative work exists upon the government of the Ther-
midorians and hardly any documents of importance have been published on this
period. The most useful secondary work on the period is contained in the
various articles by Sorel in the Revue Historique, with the same author's more
exhaustive treatment of the foreign policy in his L'Europe et la Revolution fran-
5aise, vol. 4. The most accessible primary authorities are Fain, Manuscrit
de r an III.; Aulard, Paris pendant la reaction thermidorienne et sous le Direc-
toire, and Schmidt, Tableaux de la Revolution fran^aise, which contains the reports
of the spies on the condition of Paris. The material collected by Schmidt was
worked up by him in his Pariser Zustande wahrend der Revolutionszeit, which has
The French Coyistitution of the Year III. 179
been translated iuto French by Viollet. For the rising of Prairial, see Claretie^
Les derniers Montagnards, and IVallon, Les Repr^sentauts du peuplc en mission,
vol. 5 ; for the royalist risings, Daudel, La reaction royalistc an Midi en
1795; for the affair at Quiberon, Thomas de Closntadeuc, Quiberon, 1795, and
Chassin, Le general Hoche a Quiberon ; and for the conquest and reorgan-
ization of Holland, Legrand, La Rdvolution francjaise en Hollandc la Re-
publique batave ; and of Belgium, Lanzac de Laborie, La Domination fran-
$aise en Belgique (i795-i8r4). For the Treaties of Basle and the events
leading to them, see Sorely L'Europe et la Revolution fran9aise and La Paix
de Bale (Revue Historique, vols. 5-7); Hdusser, Deutsche Geschichte vom
Tode Friedrichs des Grossen bis zur Griindung des deutschen Bundcs ; Heigel^
Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs des Grossen bis zur Auflosung des alten
Reichs ; Philippson, Geschichte des preussischen Staatswesens vom Tode Fried-
richs des Grossen ; Sybel, Geschichte der Revolutionszeit ; Gentz, Cber den
Ursprung und Charakter des Kriegs gegen die franzosische Revolution ; Zeissberg^
Zur deutsche Kaiserpolitik CBsterreichs : ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Revolu-
tionsjahre. 1795 { S tzungberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften
1889); Hiiffer^ Diplomatische Verhandlungen aus der Zeit der franzosischen
Revolution; Vivenot and Zeissberg, Quellen zur Geschichte der deutschen Kaiser-
politik CEsterreichs wabrend der franzosischen Revolutionskriege; Vivenot^ Ver-
trauliche Briefe des Freiherrn von Thugut (1790-1801), Herzog Albrecht von
Sachsen-Teschen als Reichsfeldmarschall, Thugut, Clerfait und Wurmser ( 1794-97),
and Zur Geschichte des Baseler Friedens ; Witzleben, Prinz Friedrich Josias von
Coburg-Saalfeld, Herzog zu Sachsen ; Combes, Memoire sur la correspondance
ofificielle de Merlin de Thionville relativement aux ndgociations de Bale ; and above
all, Kaulekf Papiers de Barth^lemy, ambassadeur de France en Suisse, 1792-97.
LECTURE 59.
THE FRENCH DIRECTORY, AND THE FIRST VICTORIES
OF BONAPARTE.
The Constitution of the Year III. (1795): its most important feature,
the attempted separation of the executive and legislative authorit3% the
former being vested in five Directors, the latter in two Chambers, the
Council of Ancients and the Council of Five Hundred.
The Convention resolved that two-thirds of the first legislature, un-
der the new constitution, should be elected from among themselves ;
i8o The Policy of the First Directors.
discontent expressed among those who wished for further reaction
against the Terrorists at this resolution ; insurrection of 13 Vendemi-
aire (5 Oct., 1795) in Paris, and its suppression.
The first Directors : Barras (b. 1755, d. 1829), Reubell (b 1746, d.
1810), Revelliere-Lepeaux (b. 1753, d. 1824), Carnot (b. 1753, d. 1823)
and Letourneur (b. 1751, d. 1817).
The foreign poHcy of the first Directors : adoption of the principles
of the Thermidorians ; readiness to make peace on the terms of receiv-
ing the natural boundaries of France ; the only enemies of the Repub-
lic left were England, Austria and Sardinia ; the treasonable intrigues
of Pichegru ; the activity of the emigres ; exchange of Madame Roy-
ale (20 Dec, 1795); attitude of Austria, England, Prussia, Spain and
the smaller states of Europe towards the French Republic; endeavors
of the Directors to form an alliance with Prussia and Spain.
Failure of the French armies upon the Rhine in the winter campaign
of 1795, owing to the treachery of Pichegru; Pichegru succeeded by
Jean Victor Moreau (b. 1763, d. 1813).
The condition and military situation of the Army of Italy : Scherer
pushed forward and by the victory of Loano (23-25 November, 1795)
opened communications with the Republic of Genoa, which was w^ell
affected to France.
Napoleon Bonaparte (b. 1769, d. 1821) in command of the Army of
Italy (27 March, 1796); his previous career.
Campaign of 1796 in Italy : first stage : Bonaparte turned the Mar-
itime Alps and separated the Sardinian from the Austrian army ; he
defeated the Sardinians under Colli at Montenotte (12 April), Millesimo
(13 April), Dego (15 April), Ceva (16 April) and Mondovi (22 April);
Victor Amadeus III. of Sardinia signed the Armistice of Cherasco (28
April), and made peace with the French Republic, ceding Savoy and
Nice to France (15 May).
Campaign of 1796 in Italy : second stage : Bonaparte crossed the Po,
and (10 May) forced the passage of the Adda at the bridge of Lodi ;
the Austrians evacuated Eombardy ; Bonaparte occupied Milan and
laid siege to Mantua ; the Dukes of Parma and of Modena forced to sue
for peace ; Bonaparte occupied the Legations of Ferrara and Bologna ;
Pope Pius VI. signed the Armistice of Foligno (23 June).
The Caf}ipaig?i of 1796. 181
Campaign of 1796 in Italy: third stage: an Austrian army under
Wurmser invaded Italy for the relief of Mantua; Bonaparte broke up
the siege and defeated the Austrians at Castiglione (5 Aug.); Wurmser
retreated, but in the following month entered Italy by the valley of the
Brenta, and reinforced the garrison of Mantua ; delegates from the
whole of northern Italy summoned by Bonaparte to meet at Milan.
Campaign of 1796 in Italy : fourth stage : renewed effort made by the
Emperor Francis II. for the recovery of Lombardy ; his appeal to his
people ; the Austrian army under Alvinzi invaded Italy by the Brenta ;
the French repulsed at Caldiero (12 Nov.); Bonaparte victorious in the
battle of Areola (16 Nov.); retreat of the Austrians.
Campaign of 1796 in Italy : fifth stage : the Austrians made a last
effort to relieve Mantua by way of Lake Garda ; Bonaparte defeated
Alvinzi at Rivoli (14 Jan., 1797); surrender of Mantua (2 Feb., 1797);
advance of Bonaparte on Rome ; Pope Pius VI. signed the Treaty of
Tolentino (19 Feb., 1797).
Effect of the campaign of 1796 on Italy, on Austria and on Europe ;
its effect on the position of the Directors in France.
Campaign of 1 796 in Germany : Jourdan and Moreau invaded South-
ern Germany, but were out-manoeuvred and driven back by the Arch-
duke Chailes (b. 1771, d. 1847); battle of Altenkirchen (27 Sept.) and
death of Marceau (b. 1769); famous retreat of Moreau ; effect of this
campaign on Germany ; Frederick William II. of Prussia signed a
secret supplement to the Treaty of Basle (5 Aug., 1796); Baden, Wiir-
temberg and Bavaria entered into negotiations with the French Re-
public.
Charles IV. of Spain, under the influence of Godoy, signed an offen-
sive and defensive alliance with the French Republic at San Ildefonso
(19 Aug., 1796), and declared war against England (8 Oct.) ; with-
drawal of the English from Corsica (Oct.); Sir John Jervis defeated
the Spanish fleet off Cape Saint- Vincent (14 Feb., 1797): an English
army under Sir Charles Stuart (b. 1753, d. 1831) sent to defend Portugal
against Spain.
The Directory and England: Lord Malmesbury sent to Paris to dis-
cuss bases of peace (Nov.-Dec, 1796); Hoche's expedition for the
invasion of Ireland foiled by stormy weather (Dec. 1796).
1 82 The Treaty of Cainpo-Formio, lypy.
Internal policy of the first Directors: pacification of Brittany and the
Vendee by Hoche; conspiracies of Babeuf (May, 1796) and oi the camp
of Crenelle (Sept., 1796); 'financial condition of France.
Death of the Tsaritsa Catherine II. of Russia (17 Nov., 1796); acces-
sion of the Tsar Paul ; his character.
Campaign of 1797 : Bonaparte invaded the Tyrol and approached
Vienna; preliminaries of peace between France and Austria signed at
Leoben (18 April, 1797), by which Austria agreed to recognize the
Rhine as the frontier of France, which involved the cession of Belgium,
and to take Venetia in exchange for Lombardy; a congress was fixed to
meet at Rastadt to arrange terms of peace between the French Repub-
lic and the Holy Roman Empire.
The elections of 1797 in France : Barthelemy elected a Director in
the place of Letourneur ; the majority of the legislature opposed to the
majority of the Directors ; fresh negotiations for peace with England,
which had been commenced at Lille, broken off; the majority of the
Directors were supported by Hoche and Bonaparte.
The coup d'etat of 18 Fructidor (4 Sept., 1797); Merlin of Douai and
Francois de Neufchateau elected Directors in the place of Carnot and
Barthelemy; death of Hoche (18 Sept.).
Bonaparte's policy in Italy: occupation of Venice (16 May); disso-
lution of the ancient government of Genoa and formation of the Ligurian
Republic (14 June, 1797); formation of the northern Italian states,
except Piedmont, into the Cisalpine Republic (9 July); annexation of
the Ionian Islands to the French Republic ; effect of Bonaparte's
Italian policy.
Signature of the Treaty of Campo-Formio between Austria and
France (17 Oct., 1797): the Preliminaries of Leoben followed; its open
and its secret clauses ; capture of Mayence by Hatry (29 Dec, 1797).
Critical position of England in 1797 : she remained the only nation
in arms against the French Republic ; the mutiny of the Nore and
other naval mutinies ; Duncan defeated the Dutch fleet in the battle of
Camperdown (11 Oct., 1797).
Arrival of Bonaparte in Paris (5 Dec, 1797); his reception by the
Directors ; appointed to the command of an army intended to invade
England; finding this impracticable, he suggested and prepared an ex-
pedition to Egypt.
The Directory. 183
Authorities : There is no complete and satisfactory history of the Directory ;
Barante, Histoire du Directoirc, is out of date, and the mo<lern work of Sciout^ Lc
Directoire, only conies down to Fructidor. On special points the following aeC'
ondary works may be noted ; on Vendemiaire, Zivy, Le treize vendcmiaire, an
IV.; on the conspiracy of Babcuf, Advielle, Histoire de Babeuf et du Babouvisme ;
on the coup d' dtat of Fructidor, Larue^ Histoire du 18 Fructidor, and Pierre, La
Terreur sous le Directoire, and Le Dix-huit Fructidor ; for the society, Goncourtf
Histoire de la Soci^ld frau9aise pendant le Directoire ; on the expedition to Ire-
land, CuUlotiy La France et V Irlande sous le Directoire, and Escande, Hoche en
Irlande ; on the plots of the ^migr^s, Lebon, L' Angleterre et I'emigration frangaise
de 179^ a 1800; for the finances, Stoumt, Les finances de 1' Ancien Regime et
de la Revolution ; together with Sorel, Bonaparte et Hoche en 1797. Primary
authorities on these subjects are : Real, Essai sur les journees de 13 et 14 ven-
dcmiaire; Danican, Les brigands demasqu^s, for the 13th venddmiaire ; Biwna-
rotti, Conspiration pour 1' dgalitd, dit de Babeuf; Bailleul, Rapport sur le Dix-huit
Fructidor ; Car7wt, Rdponse au rapport de Bailleul ; Barbe-Marbois, Journal d*
un deport^, and Ramel, Journal, for the coup d* dtat of Fructidor ; for the conduct
of foreign affairs, Bailleu, Preussen und Frankreich von 1795-1807, containing the
correspondence of the Prussian ministers at Paris ; Mallet du Pati, Correspondance
inCdite avec la cour de Vienne, and Wickhatn, Correspondence (1794-99); for the
condition of Paris, Schtnidt, Tableaux de la Revolution fran9aise, vol. 3 ; and
among memoirs, those o\ Revelli^re-Lkpeaux, Barras, and Talleyrand, with 77//-
baudeau, M^moires sur la Convention et le Directoire. For Napoleon's campaign
in Italy the account given by Thiers, Histoire de la Revolution fran9aise, is un-
surpassed for graphic power and substantial accuracy ; see also Sargent, Napoleon
Bonaparte's First Campaign ; lung, Bonaparte et son temps (1769-99) ; Silvagni^
Napoleone Buonaparte e i suoi tempi ; Lanfrey, Histoire de Napoleon, and Pomtne-
reul, Campagnes du general Bonaparte en Italic ; while the primary authority
is Napoleon, Correspondance; for the resettlement of Italy, Gaffarel, Bonaparte
et les rdpubliques italiennes, and Bigorri, La caduta della Republics di Genova
nel 1797. Joniini, Histoire critique et militaire des campagnes de la Revolution de
1792 ^ 1801, describes the campaigns in Germany as well as those in Italy ; upon
the former see sXsoJourdan, M^moires pour servir d I'histoire de la campagne de
1796 ; Saint-Albin, Vie de Hoche ; Par/ait, Le gCndral Marceau ; Pajol, Kldber,
sa vie, sa correspondance ; Martha-Beker, Le gdndral Desaix ; Bonnal, Histoire de
Desaix ; Philippart, Life of General Moreau, and Rambaud, Les Fran9ais sur le
Rhin (1792-1804). For the naval war see Chevalier and James, cited under Lec-
ture 56, with Brefiton, Life of Lord St. Vincent; Tucker^ Memoirs of Lord
St. Vincent, and Catnperdown, Admiral Duncan.
184 The French Expedition to Egypt ^ 1798.
LECTURE 60.
THE bECOND COALITION AGAINST THE FRENCH REPUBLIC.
Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt (1798): capture of Malta (10-17
June); after landing in Egypt (i July) he occupied Alexandria (2 July),
won the battle of the Pyramids (21 July) and occupied Cairo (24 July);
Nelson (b. 1758, d. 1805) destroyed the French fleet in Aboukir Bay at
the Battle of the Nile (i Aug.); Bonaparte and his army thus pre-
vented from leaving Egypt.
Treilhard elected a Director in the place of Frangois de Neufchateau
(May, 1798).
Foreign policy of the Fructidorian Directors : their efforts against
England ; the expedition to Egypt intended for the overthrow of Eng-
land's power in Asia ; the intrigues of the Directors in Ireland ; a force
under Humbert, sent to assist in the Irish insurrection of 1798, sur-
rendered to Cornwallis (8 Sept., 1798).
Pitt's endeavors to form a new coalition against the French Republic.
The position in Prussia : death of Frederick William II. and acces-
sion of Frederick William III. (16 Nov., 1797); character and training
of the new king; he dismissed his father's favorites, undertook re-
forms, endeavored to put the finances in order and appointed trust-
worthy ministers ; in foreign politics he resolved to maintain absolute
neutrality between France and England in spite of the special missions
of Thomas Grenville and Sieyes ; policy of Haugwitz.
The position in Austria : detestation felt for the French ; popularity
of the Emperor Francis II.; riot in Vienna (13 April, 1798) against
the French ambassador, Bernadotte (b. 1764, d. 1844) ; the Emperor
entertained the proposals of Pitt for a new coalition.
The position in Russia : character of the Tsar Paul ; his readiness to
abandon the policy of Catherine and to interfere in the affairs of West-
ern Europe ; his wrath with the French Republic for seizing Malta and
the Ionian Islands and for interfering in the affairs of the Eastern Med-
iterranean by invading Egypt ; his agreement to join the coalition and
to send armies to cooperate with the Austrians and the English against
the French Republic.
The Campaig7i of ijgg. 185
The position in the smaller states of Europe : Sweden and Denmark
maintained an attitude of friendly neutrality towards France ; Portugal
requested the withdrawal of the English army under Stuart, who then
occupied Minorca (15 Nov., 1798); Spain remained in close alliance
with France ; the Turks declared war against the French Republic u
Sept.) after the invasion of Egypt.
Change in the constitution of the Batavian Republic ; establishment
of a Directory of five members (22 Jan., 1798); promulgation of a con-
stitution modelled on that of the Year III. in France (17 March).
Revolution in Switzerland : intervention of the French ; formation of
the Helvetic Republic (April, 1798); occupation of Geneva and the
Valais by French troops.
The French in Italy : murder of Duphot in Rome (28 Dec, 1797);
occupation of Rome by Berthier (15 Feb., 1798); departure of Pope
Pius VI., who was eventually carried prisoner to France and died at
Valence (29 Aug., 1799); formation of the Roman Republic (20 March,
1798); Ferdinand IV., King of Naples and Sicily, after the news of
Nelson's victory of the Nile, drove the French from Rome ; Cham-
pionnet re-occupied Rome (15 Dec, 1798), defeated the Neapolitan
army, occupied Naples (Jan., 1799) and established the Parthenopean
Republic (23 Jan.); the French troops occupied Piedmont (Dec, 1798)
and Tuscany (March, 1799).
General indignation in Europe at the aggressions of the French Direc-
tory : the Second Coalition, freed from the fear of Bonaparte, resolved
to act ; commencement of war ; the French defeated at Stockach (25
March, 1799), and at Magnano (5 April); the negotiations at Rastadt
broken oflfand two of the French plenipotentiaries murdered (28 April).
Campaign of 1799 in Italy : a Russian army under Suvorov defeated
Moreau at Cassano (27 April), occupied Milan (29 April) and Turin
(27 May), and laid siege to Genoa ; the Russians defeated the French
under Macdonald (b. 1765, d. 1840) at the Trebbia (17-19 June); Fer-
dinand IV. re-occupied Naples ( June) ; the Austrians under Kray oc-
cupied northern Italy and, with the Russians under Suvorov, defeated
the French under Joubert at Novi (15 Aug.); the Austrians under
Melas defeated Championnet at Genola (4 Nov.).
Campaign of 1799 in Switzerland: Massena (b. 1758, d. 18 17) defeated
1 86 The Revolution of i8 Brumaire, 1799.
the Russians under Korsakov at Zurich (26 Sept.); Suvorov's army
destroyed in crossing the Alps (Sept.); the Archduke Charles compelled
by Massena's victory to abandon his scheme of invading France.
Campaign of 1799 in Holland : the English under Sir Ralph Aber-
cromby (b. 1734, d. 1801) and Admiral Mitchell seized the remnant of
the Dutch fleet in the Texel (27 Aug.); an English army under the
Duke of York (b. 1763, d. 1827), and a Russian army under Hermann,
landed in Holland; the invaders defeated by General Brune (b. 1763, d.
1815); by the Convention of Alkmaar (18 Oct.) the invaders agreed
to evacuate Holland.
Capture of Corfu by a Russian expedition (2 March, 1799); organiza-
tion of a Republic of the Ionian Islands, under the protection of the
Tsar, but tributary to the Sultan ; blockade of Malta by an English
squadron (i 798-1 800); surrender of the French garrison to the English
(5 Sept., 1800).
Bonaparte's campaign in Syria: he invaded Palestine (Feb., 1799)
and laid siege to Acre; defeat of the Turks at Mount Tabor (16 Apr.);
abandonment of the siege of Acre (20 May) and retreat into Egypt;
he defeated a Turkish army which had been landed from English ships
in Egypt (25 July) and re-established French supremacy there ; his
resolution to abandon his army and return to France.
Effect of the campaign of 1799 upon the allied Powers : wrath of the
Tsar Paul with the English and the Austrians ; his negotiations with
France.
Effect of the campaign of 1799 on the position in France : struggle
between the Legislature and the Directory; reversal of the condition of
affairs in 1797; Sieyes succeeded Reubell as Director ( May, 1799); Coup
d'itat of 30 Prairial (18 June, 1799); Gohier, Roger Ducos and Moulin
succeeded Treilhard, Merlin of Douai and Revelliere-Lepeaux as Direc-
tors ; the policy of Sieyes and of Talleyrand.
Bonaparte escaped the English cruisers in the Mediterranean and
reached France (9 Oct.), and Paris (16 Oct.) ; his determination to
overthrow the goverment of the Directory.
Revolution of 18 Brumaire (9 Nov., 1799); Bonaparte, Sieyes and
Roger Ducos declared provisional Consuls.
Effect of the Revolution of 18 Brumaire on France and on Europe.
The Consulate. 187
Authorities: Among secondary antborities, Barante, Goncourt, Guillon
and Lebon, cited under Lecture 59, and Haiisser, Ileigel, Philippson, Legrand,
Sybel and Hiiffer, cited under Lecture 58, are still useful ; and among primary
authorities, Bailleu, Mallet du Pan, Wickham, Schmidt, Revelliere-Lepeaux,
Barras, Talleyrand, Thibaudeau, Jomini and Napoleon, Correspondance, cited
under Lecture 59, and Vivenot and Zeissberg, cited under Lecture 58. To them
should be added for general and diplomatic history, Hiiffer, Diplomatische Ver-
handlungen aus der Zeit der franzosische Revolution ; Vivenot, Zur Geschichte
des Rastadter Kongresses ; Helfert, Der Rastadter Gesandtenmord ; Masson, Les
diplomates de la Revolution : Hugou de Bassville a Rome, Bernadotte 4 Vienne;
Wertheinter, Erzherzog Karl und die Zweite Koalition bis zum Frieden von Lun^-
ville (Archiv fiir CEsterreichische Geschichte, vol. 67); for events in Italy, see
Franchetti, Storia d' Italia dal 1789 al 1799; Tivaroni, Storia critica del Risorgi-
mento Italiano ; Carulli, Storia della corte di Savoia durante la Rivoluzione h
I'Impero Francese ; Baldassari, Histoirede I'enlevement et la captivitd de Pie VI.;
Artaudy Histoire de Pie VI. ; Helfert, Konigin Karolina von Neapel und Sicilien
im Kampfe gegen die franzosische Wellherrschaft, and Fabrizio Rufifo ; Revolution
und Gegen-Revolution von Neapel, Nov., 1798 bis Aug., 1799; HUffer, Die
neapolitanische Republik des Jahres 1799 ; and the Memoirs of Miot de Melito^
Macdonald and Thidbault ; for the Swiss revolution see Tillier, Histoire de la
republique helvetique (1798-1803); Rochette, Histoire de la revolution helv^tique
de 1797 a 1803; Roverea, M^moires; for the military history in Europe, s^^Jomini^
Mathieu Dumas, Precis des dv^nements militaires sur la campagne de 1799;
Michailowski-Danilewski and Miliutin, Geschichte des Krieges Russlands mit
Frankreich im Jahre 1799 ; Macready, Sketch of Suwarow and his Last Campaign ;
Reding'Biberegg, Der Zug SuworoflPs durch die Schweiz; Giinther, Der Feldzug der
Division Lecourbe im Schweizerischen Hochgebirge, 1799; Bonnal, La guerre de
HoUande, and L'aflFaire du Texel, and Bunbury, Some Passages in the Great War
with France ; for the campaign in Egypt, in addition to Lanfrey and lung, see
Bertrand, Relation des campagnes du g6n6ral Bonaparte en Egypte et en Syrie ;
Boulay de la Meurthe, Le Directoire et I'exp^dition d' Egypte ; Gall, Bonaparte en
Egypte and Guitry, L'armde de Bonaparte en Egypte (1798-99); for the Revolu-
tion of 18 Brumaire, see Luden Bonaparte, Revolution de Brumaire, and Memoires,
tnd Gohter, Mdmoi e**.
LECTURE 61,
THE TREATIES OF LUNEVILLE AND OF AMIENS.
Constitution of the Year VIII. (1799): executive power assumed by
Bonaparte as First Consul ; Cambaceres (b. 1753, d. 1824) and Le Brun
(b. 1739, d. 1824) appointed Second and Third Consuls.
1 88 The Treaty of Luneville^ i8oi.
The foreign policy of Bonaparte as First Consul : his negotiations
with Russia ; the Tsar Paul's admiration for Bonajmrte ; he ordered
Louis XVIII. to leave Russia and proposed that Bonaparte should
make himself King of France ; Bonaparte's negotiations with Prussia ;
Frederick William III. expressed personal admiration for Bonaparte,
but refused to abandon his attitude of neutrality ; Bonaparte's negotia-
tions with the new Pope, Pius VII. — Chiaramonti ; his resolution to
continue the war with Austria and with England.
Bonaparte's campaign of 1800 in Italy: the defence of Genoa by
Massena; surrender of Genoa (4 June); Bonaparte's passage of the Alps
by the Great St. Bernard ; battle of Montebello (9 June); utter defeat
of the Austrians under Melas at Marengo (14 June), and death of
Desaix (b. 1768); the French reoccupied the whole of Northern Italy
xvithout further fighting ; reestablishment of the Cisalpine and Ligurian
Republics.
Campaign of 1800 in Germany: manoeuvres of Moreau and the Arch-
duke Charles ; Moreau at Munich ; Moreau ordered to continue the
campaign into the winter; his defeat of the Archduke John (b. 1782, d.
1859) at Hohenlinden (3 Dec); Macdonald crossed the Spliigen and
with Brune threatened Vienna; Moreau' s advance on Vienna; the
Emperor Francis II. obliged to make peace.
Signature of the Treaty of Luneville (9 Feb., 1801) by Joseph Bona-
parte (b. 1768, d. 1844) and Cobenzl (b. 1753, d. 1808), the French and
Austrian plenipotentiaries : by this treaty the Emperor Francis, both as
Holy Roman Emperor and as ruler of Austria, acknowledged the Rhine
to be the frontier of France and recognized the Cisalpine Republic ;
Austria again received Venice ; the Duke of Modena, whose heiress
had married the Austrian Archduke Ferdinand, received the Breisgau
in exchange for his duchy, now absorbed in the Cisalpine Republic ;
Tuscany converted into the Kingdom of Etruria and conferred upon the
son of the Duke of Parma, a relative of the King of Spain, and the
Grand Duke Ferdinand promised a principality in Germany; Ferdi-
nand IV., King of Naples and Sicily, allowed to retain his dominions,
and the Pope received back the States of the Church, with the exception
of Bologna and Ferrara ; agreement made for the re-constitution of the
Holy Roman Empire and the secularization of the German ecclesi-
The Treaty of Amie7is, 1802. 189
astical principalities ; Thugut succeeded by Cobenzl ia charge of Aus-
trian foreign affairs.
Further arrangements in Italy: the Cisalpine Republic reorganized
on the model of the new form of government in France, and Bonaparte
declared President of it, as the Italian Republic (Jan., 1802) ; Melzi (b.
1753, d. 18 16) appointed Vice-President ; the Ligurian Republic reestab-
blished, with the provision that its Doge be appointed by France.
The Batavian Republic reorganized (6 Oct., 1801) ; the Directory
abolished and replaced by the "government of state" of twelve
members.
The Tsar Paul of Russia : his proposals to Bonaparte for a joint cam-
paign against England ; his mad freaks and unpopularity in Russia; his
assassination (23 March, 1801).
Bonaparte's action against England : his desire to strike at her com-
merce ; reestablishment of the Armed Neutrality, or Neutral League of
the North, originally established by the Tsaritsa Catherine in 1780; the
English, under Parker and Nelson, bombarded Copenhagen and de-
stroyed the Danish fleet (2 April, 1801).
War between Spain and Portugal : Bonaparte ordered that the Por-
tuguese ports should be closed to English trade and certain cessions
made to Spain ; Prince John of Portugal, who was formally declared
Prince Regent in 1799, refused ; the Spaniards invaded Portugal and
defeated the Portuguese armies ; by the Treaty of Badajoz (6 June,
1 801) Portugal ceded Olivenza to Spain; occupation of Madeira and
Goa by the English.
The campaign in Egypt Ci 800-1 801): victory of Kl^ber (b. 1753) at
Heliopolis (20 March, 1800); assassination of Kleber (14 June, 1800);
landing of an English army under Abercromby in Egypt (8 March,
1 801): battle of Alexandria (21 March); surrender of Cairo and Alex-
andria ; the French agreed to evacuate Egypt (2 Sept., 1801).
Desire for peace in both England and France ; resignation of Pitt,
who was succeeded by Addington (March, 1801); negotiations for peace;
the Treaty of Amiens signed by Joseph Bonaparte and Lord Cornwallis
(25 March, 1802); by the terms of this treaty England restored Mar-
tinique and Guadeloupe to France, but retained Trinidad, conquered
from Spain, and Ceylon, conquered from the Dutch ; England promised
igo The Co7isulate.
to restore Malta to the Knights of St. John, if their independence was
guaranteed by the Great Powers.
By the Treaties^of Luneville and Amiens, Europe was for the first
time entirely at peace, since France declared war against Austria in
1792 ; position of the powers of Europe towards each other ; France
had come out of the struggle not only with undiminished power, but
with a general recognition of the Rhine as her frontier ; commanding
position of Bonaparte as First Consul.
Attitude towards France of England, Austria, Prussia, Russia and
Spain.
Authorities : For the drawing up of the government of the Consulate see the
Registre des deliberations du Consulat provisoire (11 N0V.-24 Dec, 1799), ed.
Aulard ; for the campaign of Marengo in addition to Jomini, cited under Lec-
ture 59, see the excellent account given in Thiers, Histoire du Consulat et de
r Empire, and Sargent, The Campaign of Marengo ; for the campaign in Egypt,
see Wilson, History of the British Expedition to Egypt ; for the Treaty of Lune-
ville, Krones, Geschichte CEsterreichs im Zeitalter des franzosischen Kriege und
der Restauration ; Beer, Zehn Jahre cesterreichischen Politik, 1801-10, and
Fournier, Gentz und Cobenzl : Geschichte der cesterreichischen Diplomatie in
den Jahre 1801-05 ; for the Treaty of Amiens, Pellew, Life of Lord Sidmouth, and
Ross^ The Correspondence of the Marquess Cornwallis.
LECTURE 62.
THE CONSULATE IN FRANCE, AND THE RE-CONSTITUTION
OF GERMANY.
The constitution of the Consulate : the Council of State, the Senate,
the Tribunate and the Legislative Body ; the National List.
The goxerQme^xt of the Consulate : its policy of reconciliation ; many
imigris permitted to return ; complete pacification of the Vendee by the
Treaty of Montlugon (17 Jan., 1800); suppression of brigandage; res-
toration of internal peace.
The ^fin^ncial policy of the Consulate : the work of Gaudin (b. 1 756,
d. 1844); taxes fairly levied and collected ; corruption punished ;
foundation of the Bank of France (13 Feb., 1800).
The Consulate. 191
The Consulate and legal reform : commissions appointed to draw up
codes of law and procedure.
The Consulate and the CatholiaJChurch : Bonaparte's negotiations
with the Papacy ; end of the schism which had lasted since the Civil
Constitution of the Clergy was enacted in 1790 ; terms of the Concordat
signed by Pope Pius VII. and the First Consul Bonaparte (15 July,
1 801), and promulgated (8 April, 1802).
The Consulate and education : Bonaparte's attempt to establish a
scheme of national education.
The Consulate and the intprnal administration of France : formation
of the Prefectures ; the left bank of the Rhine and Geneva organized
as part of France; the work of Chaptal (b. 1756, d. 1832).
The Consulate and the colonies-of France : Bonaparte desired to
restore the power of France in America ; he obtained Louisiana from
Spain (1800) and an extension of French Guiana from Portugal (1801);
he re-occupied Guadeloupe and Martinique by the Treaty of Amiens ;
expedition to San Domingo ; resistance of Toussaint Louverture.
Constitutional changes made during the Consulate : efifect of the Con-
spiracy of the Infernal Machine (24 Dec, i8co) ; Bonaparte declared,
after an appeal to the primary assemblies, First Consul for life (2 Aug.,
1802), and enabled to nominate a successor (^ Aug.); the National
List suppressed and replaced by Electoral Colleges.
The ministers of the Consulate : Talleyrand, Minister of Foreign
Affairs; Gaudin, of Finance; Regnier, of Justice; Chaptal, of the In-
terior ; Berthier, of War ; Decres, of the Marine ; Foijclie,^ of Police.
The re-constitution of Germany : the new arrangements made neces-
sary by the cession to France by the Treaty of Luneville of the left
bank of the Rhine and by the proofs that had been given, during the
war, of the intrinsic weakness of the political system of the Empire ;
the new arrangements accepted by the Imperial Diet (24 March, 1803)
and by the Emperor (27 April) ; the Holy Roman Empire, as it had
existed since the Treaties of Westphalia, practically came to an end.
Changes made in the Colleges of the Imperial Diet : (i) the College
of Electors increased from eight electors, three ecclesiastical and five
lay, to ten electors, one ecclesiastical and nine lay ; the ArcliBishops of
Cologne and Treves lost their electoral dignity owing to their dominions
192 The Reco7istitution of Germany in i8oj.
being absorbed into France ; the Archbishop of Mayence continued as
an elector and received as his dominions the bishopric of Ratisbon, the
principality of Aschaffenburg and the county of Vv^etzlar ; the nine lay
electors were Bohemia, Brandenburg, Saxony, Bavaria and Hanover,
with four new electors, the Margrave of Baden, the Duke of Wiirtem-
berg, the I^andgrave of Hesse-Cassel and Ferdinand, formerly Grand
Duke of Tuscany, who was made Elector of Salzburg ; ( 2) College of
Princes : owing to the secularization of the Catholic bishoprics and
monasteries this college was reduced in importance and contained a
majority of Protestant princes ; (3) College of Free Cities : this college
would have been entirely abolished but for the intervention of France ;
as it was, only six free cities were maintained out of fifty-two, namely,
Augsburg, Bremen, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Hamburg, Iviibeck and
Nuremberg ; these changes in the Imperial Diet deprived the Catholics,
and Austria, the chief Catholic power, of their predominance.
The secularization of the ecclesiastical states : this step, which had
been suggested by France at Basle and by Bonaparte at Leoben, was
nominally undertaken to compensate those Princes of the Empire w^ho
had lost territory by the cession of the left bank of the Rhine to
France ; the princes who profited most were, however, those who were
already powerful ; thus Prussia, Bavaria, Baden, Wiirtemberg and Han-
over all received important accessions of territory, making them com-
pact and populous states ; Austria received only two small bishoprics,
Brixen and Trent, but two Austrian Princes, the Grand Duke Ferdi-
nand and the Duke of Modena, received the German states of Salzburg
and the Breisgau in compensation for the loss of their Italian principali-
ties ; the Prince of Orange, formerly Stadtholder in the United Nether-
lands, received the bishopric of Fulda.
Effect upon the policy and condition of Germany of these sweeping
changes, destroying the Holy Roman Empire and building up strong
German states.
The re-constitution of Switzerland : Bonaparte's interference in Swiss
politics ; by the Act of Mediation (19 Feb., 1803) he restored federal gov-
ernment, but maintained the abolition of feudal relics and the internal
reforms made by the Helvetic Republic ; to the thirteen old cantons — six
democratic, Appenzell, Glarus, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Uri and Zug,
The Reconsiitution of ^Switzerland in iSoj. 193
and seven oligarchical, Basle, Berne, Freiburg, Lucerne, Schafthausen,
Soleure and Zurich — he added six new cantons:^Vaud, Aargau, Thur-
gau, Ticino, Saint- Gall and the Grisons ; but he retained Geneva as
part of France and established the independent Republic of the Valais ;
he regulated the relations between the federal and cantonal governments,
and was called Mediator of the Swiss Confederation, a title which he
officially assumed in 1809.
Authorities : A brief account of the Consulate and of the re-constitution of Ger-
many and Switzerland is given in Morse Stephens, Europe, 1789-1815, chap. vii.
For the Consulate, see Thiers, Histoire du Consulat et de 1' Empire ; Thibaudeau,
Memoires sur le Consulat, and Le Consulat et I'Empire, and for the policy of
Bonaparte, the various lives and histories, particularly Lanfrey, Fournier and
Taine^ v*dth Pelet, Opinions de Napoleon au Conseil d'Etat. Special secondary
hooks are Rocquain, Etat de la France au 18 Brumaire ; Daudet^ La police et les
Cbouaus sous le Consulat et I'Empire ; Guillon, Les conspirations militaires sous
le Consulat et I'Empire Destretn, Les deportations du Consulat et de I'Empire ;
Aucoc, Le Conseil d'Etat, and Fauriel, Les derniers jours du Consulat. The Me-
moirs most valuable for the subjects treated in this lecture are those of Chaptal,
Lucien Bonaparte, Talleyrand, Mollien, Roederer, Pasquier and Gaudin. For
the Concordat, consult Boulay de la Meurthe, Documents sur la n^gociation du Con-
cordat ; Sdchi, Les origines du Concordat; Theiner, Histoire des deux Concordats,
and the valuable work of D'Haussonville, L'Eglise romaine et le premier Empire
(1800-1814). For the re-constitution of Germany, see Gaspari, Der Reichsdeputa-
tionshauptschluss ; Ratnbaud, La Domination fran^aise en AUemagne ; HausseTy
Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs des Grossen; Oncken, Das Zeitalter der
Revolution, des Kaiserreichs und der Befreiungskriege ; Beer^ Zehn Jahre oester-
reichischer Politik, 1801-1810, and Heigel, Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Fried-
richs des Grossen. For the re- constitution of Switzerland, see Ddndliker, Histoire
du peuple Suisse ; Hilty, Les Constitutions f^d^rales de la Suisse ; Rochette,
Histoire de la revolution helv^tique de 1797 ^ 1803 ; Roverea, M^moires, and
Jahn.^ Bonaparte, Talleyrand et Stapfer, 1800-1803.
LECTURE63.
THE POWER OF NAPOLEON AT ITS HEIGHT.
Recommencement of war between France and England (18 May,
1803): causes of the war ; the points left unsettled by the Treaty of
194 '^^^ Emperor Napoleon.
Amiens ; the question of Malta, which the English refused to surren-
der ; the interference of the First Consul in Switzerland and his annex-
ation of Piedmont (ii Sept., 1802) regarded as evidences of the desire
of France further to disturb the peace of Europe ; Bonaparte's wrath
at the libels published upon him in England ; the trial of Peltier ; the
embassy of Whitworth to Paris ; the English seized French ships and
Bonaparte in reprisal arrested all Englishmen travelling in France and
occupied Hanover.
Formation of the Grande Armee j__Bonaparte's genius for military
organization ; his establishment of the camp at Boulogne and prepara-
tions to invade England.
Difficulties of Bonaparte's position ; the plot of Pichegru, Georges
Cadoudal and others against his life ; arrest and execution of the Due
d'Enghien (21 March, 1804).
Bonaparte offered the title of Emperor of the French by the Senate
(18 May, 1804) ; the offer ratified by the French people in their primary
assemblies ; coronation of Bonaparte as the^Emperor Napoleon (2 Dec.,J^
1804); also crowned King of Italy at Milan~X26~igg^ri8o5). x<^ h^-^jj^y^^
The institutions of the Empire : the Imperial Court ; increased im-
portance of the Senate and Council of State ; highly centralized form
of administration established under the Empire.
In the year in which Bonaparte became Emperor of the French the
Emperor Francis II. declared the Austrian dominions an hereditary em-
pire (11 Aug., 1804), and took the title of Francis I., Emperor of Austria
(7 Dec); after the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine, the
Emperor Francis resigned the title of Holy Roman Emperor and ab-
solved the Princes of the Empire from their allegian£e (6 Aug., 1806).
Position of affairs in England af~The recommencenient of war with
France : Addington, who had made the Treaty of Amiens, succeeded
as Prime Minister by Pitt, who advocated a vigorous foreign policy (18
May, 1804).
Pitt's endeavors to form a third coalition against Napoleon ; Fred-
erick William III. persisted in maintaining the strict neutrality by which
Prussia had gained so much ; the Tsar Alexander I. of Russia person-
ally admired Napoleon, but his court and people pressed him to side
with England ; the execution of d'Enghien and Napoleon's treatment
Austerlitz^ Jena and Friedland. 195
of his ambassador further impelled Alexander to join the coalition
against France ; the Emperor Francis gladly entered the coalition ;
Spain was the close ally of Napoleon, while of smaller countries,
Sweden, under Gustavus IV., the Two Sicilies, and Portugal were favor-
able to the coalition, and Denmark, to Napoleon.
The campaign of 1805 : Napoleon unable to attempt the invasion of
England because the French fleet could not command the Channel ; the
scheme of Napoleon frustrated by the conduct of Admiral Villeneuve ;
Nelson in command of the Channel ; Sir Robert Calder's action with
the French fleet (22 July); the Austrians under Mack, before the declara-
tion of war, occupied Ulm (Sept.) ; Napoleon, despairing of invading
England, broke up his camp at Boulogne and invaded Germany ; sur-
render of Mack at Ulm (20 Oct.); victory of Trafalgar won by Nelson
over the French and Spanish fleets (21 Oct.); Napoleon at Vienna ; a
Russian army joined the Austrians ; Napoleon's victory over the Aus-
trians and Russians at Austerlitz (2 Dec).
The results of Austerlitz : by the Treaty of Pressburg (26 Dec.) Aus-
tria ceded Venetia to the Kingdom of Italy, Istria and Dalmatia to Na-
poleon, who governed them under Marmont as the Illyrian Provinces,
and the Tyrol to Bavaria ; the Electors of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg
given the title of King, and the Elector of Baden that of Grand Duke ;
formation of the Confederation of the Rhine (12 July. 1806).
Death of Pitt (23 Jan., 1806) ; Ministry of All the Talents (10 Feb., .
1806-25 Mar., 1807) ; death orFox_(i3 Sept., i8o6).-voj^ t:^ vX<*-vy. ^^^•-tLa.^
The campaign of 1806 ; the altitude of Prussia to Napoleon, and of
Napoleon to Prussia ; influence of Queen Louisa upon Frederick Wil-
liam III.; the Prussians defeated by Napoleon at^ena and by Davout
(b. 1770, d. 1823) at Auerstadt (14 Oct.); occupation of Berlin (25 •
Oct.); the French army invaded Poland, occupied Warsaw (28 Nov.) f
and went into winter quarters on the Russian frontier.
The campaign of 1807 : battle of Eylau (8 Feb.) ; close alliance
formed between the Tsar Alexander and Frederick William III. of
Prussia by the Treaty of Bartenstein (25 April) ; surrender of Dantzig
to the French (24 May); Napoleon's victory over the Russians at
Friedland (14 June).
Interview between Napoleon and Alexander at Tilsit (25 June, 1807),
196 The Peace of Tilsit^ i8oy.
followed by the Peace of Tilsit (7 July, 18^7); by this treaty Russia
ceded the Ionian Islands, which had been under Russia control since
1799, to France; Napoleon promised not to restore the independence of
Poland, but created the part of Poland which Prussia had received in
the second and third partitions into the Grand Duchy of Warsaw; the
Elector Frederick Augustus of Saxony, to whom Napoleon had given
the title of King of Saxony, made Grand Duke of Warsaw; Napoleon
suggested to Alexander the resurrection of the Empires of the East
and the West and advised him to extend his dominions at the expense
of Sweden and Turkey. \ C;1^;tL;::Sl^'^^^^ "^
Napoleon made peace vfith Prussia (9 July, 1807), depriving Fred-
erick William III. of Polish Prussia and of all Prussian territory to the
west of the Elbe.
After the Peace ot Tilsit, Napoleon recognized that his sole remain-
ing enemy was England ; progress of the war with England after the
battle of Trafalgar ; triumph of the English fleet and blockade of the
French coasts ; the English occupied Sicily, to which island Ferdinand
IV. had fled before a French armj^ in 1805, and Sir John Stuart (b. 1759,
d. 1815) defeated General Reynier at Maida (4 July, 1806); the English
re-occupied the Cape of Good Hope (Jan., 1806), which had been restored
to the Dutch by the Treaty of Amiens.
Napoleon, being unable to attack England directly, resolved to ruin
English commerce ; he issued the Berlin Decree (21 Nov., 1806) de-
claring the British Islands in a state ^ blbckadeT England replied by
the Orders in Council (11 Nov.*, 1807), which Napoleon followed by the
Milan Decree (17 Dec, 1807) declaring any ship touching at a British
port lawfuPprize ; by the Treaty of Tilsit, Russia agreed to the Con-
tinental Blockade ; effect of the blockade on English commerce, and on
Napoleon's position in France and in Europe.
The Duke of Portland became the English Prime Minister (31 Mar.,
1807), with Canning and Castlereagh as Secretaries of State.
The Peace of Tilsit marked the zenith of Napoleon's power, but
his splendor was most apparent during the Congress of Erfurt (Sept.,
1808).
Authorities : For the history of the Empire, see Morse Stephens, Thiers, Thu
baudeaUy Foamier and Lanfrey, cited under Lecture 62 ; for the personality of
The Confederation of the Rhine. 197
Napoleon, Taine^ Napoleon ; Livy^ Napoleon intime ; Masson, Napoleon ct sa
famille, Napoleon chez lui, and Napoldon et les femmes ; Bourrienne, Memoirs ;
Mdneval, Memoirs ; for the outbreak of war with England, sec Oscar Brownings
England and Napoleon in 1803, being the Despatches of Lord Whitworth and
others ; for the plots against Napoleon, Cadoudal, Georges de Cadoudal et la
Chouannerie ; for the execution of Enghien, Welschingery Le due d'Enghien ;
for the relations between Napoleon and the Tsar Alexander, see Vandal, Alex-
andre I" et Napoleon, and Tatischeff^ Napoleon et le Tsar Alexandre d'apres des
documents in^dits ; for the campaigns of Austerlitz, Jena and Friedland, see the
elaborate works oi Jomini, and Mathieu Dumas, with the numerous books on
and by the marshals, officers and soldiers of the Grande Arm^e, among which may
be especially noted Marbot, lilemoirs, and Thiebault, Souvenirs; for the Continental
Blockade, Lumbroso, Napoleone e I'lnghilterra, Saggio suUe origini del blocco
contiuentale ; Mahan, Influence of Sea. Power upon the French Revolution and
Empire ; for the Imperial Court, see Madame de Remusat, Memoirs ; and, as the
primary authority for the whole period, the Correspondence of Napoleon with his
I/Cttres inedites, ed. Lecestre. An elaborate bibliography of books dealing with
the period by Lumbroso is in course of publication.
I.ECTURE 64.
EUROPE DURING THE ASCENDENCY OF NAPOLEON.
-^ Napoleon, after the^2flS3^>yP( Tilsit, destroyed the last relics of the
^ Holy Roman Empire and reorganized Germany ; under his system the
^- uTConfederaTion ot the Rhine, of which he was entitled the Protector, be-
[G^^came the chief power in Germany ; it consisted, when at its greatest
^rf^-^tent, of thirty-seven reigning princes ; its population of 15,000,000
^/w* Germans was bound to contribute 120,000 soldiers to the army of Na-
'^^^^poleon ; and its policy was conducted b}^ a Diet, sitting at Frankfort,
composed of two colleges, the College of Kings, including four kings
and five grand dukes, and the College of Princes, including thirteen
dukes and fifteen princes.
The four kingdoms in the Confederation of the Rhine were Bavaria,
Wiirtemberg, Westphalia and Saxony ; the Kings of Bavaria and
Wiirtemberg allied their families with that of Napoleon and received
■:i98-. Italy tmder Napoleon.
their reward in extension of territory ; the King of Saxony made Grand
Duke of Warsaw and included in the Confederation from the impor-
tance of his geographical position between Austria, Prussia and Russia ;
the Kingdom of Westphalia created by Napoleon (i8 Aug., 1807) from
the dominions of Prussia to the west of the Elbe, with Hesse-Cassel,
Brunswick, part of Hanover, etc., and conferred on Napoleon's youngest
brother, Jerome Bonaparte (b. 1784, d. i860).
The five grand duchies in the Confederation of the Rhine were Baden ;
Jl£Sse:P3ftnatadt ;- Berg, created by Napoleon and conferred by him on
his brother-in-law, Joachim Murat (b. 1771, d. 18 15) ; Frankfort, con-
ferred on Dalberg (b. 1744, d. 181 7), formerly Archbishop- Elector of
Mayence ; and Wiirzburg, conferred on the Grand Duke Ferdinand,
formerly ruler of Tuscany.
Effect of the new organization in Germany ; the French system of
centralized adn^j^^j^t^a^i'"'^ ^"^ of military conscription everywhere in-
troduced ; serfdom and other feudal abuses abolished ; the codified law
of France introduced into Westphalia and Berg ; the Knights of the
Empire deprived of their sovereign rights ; the petty dukes, counts
and princes whose territories lay within those of the reigning princes
were mediatized, that is to say, lost their immediate sovereignty, while
retaining their titles and rank as a class of privileged aristocracy.
Effect of these measures : Germany became a confederation of more
or less powerful states instead of a collection of petty feudal princi-
palities.
Napoleon's Italian policy : he appointed his step-son, Eugene de
Beauharnais (b. 1781, d. 1824), Viceroy of the Kingdom of Italy, which
comprised the former Cisalpine Republic, with the addition, after the
Treaty of Pressburg, of Venetia ; Napoleon kept Piedmont as part of
the French dominions, and annexed Parma (q Oct., 1802), the Ligurian
^''^'^epublic (4 June, 1805), Etruria or Tuscany (10 Dec, 1807), and event-
ually Rome (13 Dec, 1810) directly to France, giving his sister Elisa
the title of Grand Duchess of Tuscany and Princess of Lucca, and his
sister Pauline that of Duchess of Guastalla ; the relations of Napoleon
with the Pope ; arrest of Pius VII. (6 July, 1809) ; the Kingdom of
Naples conferred upon Napoleon's brother, Joseph Bonaparte (30
March, 1806), and on Murat (15 July, 1808;; great reforms accomplished
in Italy, but failure of Napoleon to recognize the principle of nationality.
NapoleoiC s Power at its Height. 199
Napoleon and the Protestant Netherlands : further change in the
constitution of the Batavian Republic; Schimmelpenninck (b. 1761, d.
^_^ 1825) made Grand Pensionary (22 March, 1805) ; Louis Bonaparte
'" made Kin^ of Holland (24 May, 1806) ; dislike of the Dutch for the
Continental Blockade ; Holland annexed to Napoleon's dominions (9
July, 1810).
The Valais annexed, as the department of the Simplon, to Napoleon's
empire (13 Dec, 1810).
Neufchatel, Benevento and Ponte Corvo granted by Napoleon as
sovereign principalities, feudatory to himself, to Berthier, Talleyrand
and Bernadotte (l8o6). -, , ._ ^
Denmark during the ascendency 'of Napoleon : Napoleon's scheme
for seizing the Danish fleet ; the English, hearing of this scheme, bom-
barded Copenhagen and seized the Danish fleet (2-7 Sept., 1807);
friendship of Frederick VI. of Denmark for Napoleon.
Sweden 'Sfurmg the ascendency of Napoleon : Gustavus IV., an enemy
of Napoleon and ally of England ; after the Treaty of Tilsit the French
under Brune occupied Swedish Pomerania ; the Tsar Alexander con-
quered Finland (1808); insanity of Gustavus IV.; his attack upon
Denmark; dethroned (13 March) and his uncle, the former regent,
made king (5 June, 1809); Bernadotte (b. 1764, d. 1844), one of Napo-
leon's marshals, elected Prince Royal of Sweden and heir to the throne
(5 Nov., \^io\^^^^^j,^ t^^^^ Jir^y
The Turks/during the ascendency/of Napoleon : the Sultan Selim
III. refused to enter Pitt's coalitioji against Napoleon (1805), and an
English expedition under Duckworth was sent against him (1807);
overthrow of Selim (31 May 1807); after an interval Mahmud II. be-
came Sultan (28 July, 1808);^ his vigor and ability; inclined to the side
of France, but disliked theestablishment of the French in the Illyrian
Provinces ; the Tsar Alexander attacked the Turks (1809); the Russians
occupied Moldavia and Wallachia (18 10), and crossed the Danube (181 1).
The greatest extension of Napoleon's empire attained by the annex-
ation of the districts along the northern coasts of Germany from the
borders of Holland to the mouth of the Weser, including Bremen,
Hamburg, and Liibeck (13 Dec, 18 10); these districts were partly taken
from Westphalia and Berg, and partly consisted of Oldenburg and three
200 Napoleoji' s Administration,
petty states of the Confederation of the Rhine ; this annexation was
caused by the difl&culty of maintaining the Continental Blockade.
At this time Napoleon's empire was divided into 130 departments,
extending from Rome to lyiibeck ; the organization and administration
cf these departments.
Napoleon's administration when at the height of his power : excel-
lence of his civil service ; his ministers and the Council of State ; sup-
pression of the Tribunate (19 Aug., 1807); growing importance of the
police department ; Fouche (b. 1763, d. 1820), Minister of Police (1804-
10), and Savary (18 10-14); organization of the army, and services of
Clarke, Minister of War ; Napoleon's legal reforms ; the codes ; his
financial reforms ; his reforms in education ; the formation of the Uni-
versity of France (17 March, 1808).
Napoleon's belief in the hereditary principle ; his new nobility ; his
desire for an heir ; resolution to divorce his wife, the Empress Josephine
(b. 1763, d. 1814).
Failure of Napoleon to appreciate the forces working against him at
the height of his power ; he had failed to ruin England, in spite of all
his efforts ; he had rous^4 the natiotial spirit, which had_inade_France
great, agains^ himJn_Spain and in Germany; the Grande Armee which
had^onliis victories was being destroyed, and the vacancies in its
ranks filled by foreigners and young French conscripts.
Authorities : Upon Germany during the Napoleonic period, see Rambaud, La
Domination frangaise en Allemagne (1804-11); Beck, Zur Verfassungsgeschichte
des Rheinbunds ; Lucchesini, Sulle cause e gli effetti della confederazione rhenana ;
Perthes, Politische Zustande und Personen zur Zeit der franzosischer Herrschaft ;
Dumoulin-Eckart, Bayern unter dem Ministerium Montgelas ; Montgelas, Denk-
wiirdigkeiten (1799-1817); Pfister, Konig Friedrich von Wiirttemberg und seine
Zeit; Normann-Ehrenfels, Denkwiirdigkeiten (1756-1817); Kleinschmidt, Ge-
' schichte des Konigreichs Westfalen ; Du Casse^ Memoires et correspondance du
roi Jerome ; Beugnot, Memoires ; Goecke, Das Grossherzogthum Berg unter Joachim
Murat ; Beaulieu-Margonnay, Karl von Dalberg und seine Zeit ; Kramer, Karl
Theodor, Reichsft-eiherr von Dalberg ; Bockenheimer, Geschichte der Stadt Mainz,
wahrend der zweiten franzosischen Herrschaft ; and Hesse, Geschichte der Stadt
Bonn, wahrend der franzosischen Herrschaft. Upon Italy, see Vaudoncourt,
Histoire politique et militaire du Prince Eugene Napoleon ; Lafolie, Histoire de
Tadministration du royaume d'ltalie pendant la domination franjaise; Eugene de
Beauharnais, Memoires et correspondance, ed. by Du Casse; and Melzi, Memoire.
Napoleoti's biterjerence in the Peni7isula. . 201
Oa the arrest of the Pope, see Artaud, Histoire du Pape Pie VII.; Critineau-Joly,
Mdmoires du Cardinal Consalvi ; Pacca, M^nioires historiques ;. Coittbier, M^-
moires du G^n^ral Radet, and Maury, Correspondance et nidnioircs. Ou Holland,
see Jorissetiy Napol^oa I et le roi Louis ; and Louis JJotLipatle, Documents his-
toriques et rdflexions sur le gouvernetneut de la HuUdnae. On Sv\edeu, Svtderus,
Schwedens Politik und Kriege (1808-1814). On the Code,/a^, Bonaparte et le
Code CiviL
LECTURE 65.
THE OVERTHROW OF THE POWER OF NAPOLEON.
The struggle between England and Napoleon : the policies repre-
sented by Castlereagh (b. 1769, d. 1822) and Canning (b. 1770, d. 1827),
the latter desiring to raise national insurrections against Napoleon, the
former to make coalitions and to act directly against the French with
English armies; duel between Castlereagh and Canning (21 Sept.,
1809); Lord Wellesley (b. 1760, d. 1842), director of English foreign
policy (1809-1812); capture by the English of the remaining colonial
possessions of France and Holland, Martinique (23 Feb., 1809), Guade-
loupe (6 Feb., 1810) and the Mauritius (2 Dec, 1810), and Java (18
Sept., 181 1).
Napoleon's resolution to attack Portugal, because the Prince- Regent
declined to join in the Continental Blockade ; by the Treaty of Fon-
tainebleau with Spain (27 Oct., 1807) he arranged for the division of
Portugal ; a French army under Junot invaded Portugal ; flight of the
Prince-Regent to Brazil; Junot entered Lisbon (30 Nov., 1807),
occupied the whole of Portugal, and declared that the House of Bra-
ganza had ceased to reign (i Feb., 1808).
Napoleon's interference in the affairs in Spain : the people of Madrid
attacked Godoy, the Queen's lover, and supported Prince Ferdinand,
the heir to the throne ; the royal family of Spain appealed to Napoleon
and proceeded to France ; Charles IV. ceded his throne to Napoleon,
who proclaimed his brother Joseph, King of Spain (6 June, 1808); a
French army entered Spain to support Joseph and occupied Madrid ;
202 Vimeiro, Coriinna and Wagram.
general insurrection of the Spaniards ; surrender of 18,000 French
soldiers to the Spaniards at Baylen (20 July, 1808); the English minis-
try assisted the Spanish insurgents with money and arms.
The Portuguese in insurrection against the French ; the English min-
istry sent an army to their help under Sir Artitur Wellesley (b. 1769,
d. 1852), who won the battles of Roliga and Vimeiro (17, 21 Aug.,
1808); by the Convention of Cintra (30 Aug.) Junot agreed to evacuate
Portugal.
Napoleon in person invaded Spain, and occupied Madrid (4 Dec,
1808); Sir John Moore (b. 1761, d. 1809) with the English army ad-
vanced from Portugal to Salamanca to save Andalusia; retreat of Sir
John Moore to Corunna ; battle of Corunna (16 Jan., 1809).
The difficulties of Napoleon in the Peninsula and the promise of
support from England caused the Emperor Francis to believe the time
propitious for a fresh war ; unpopularity of the French in Germany ;
Napoleon's contempt for the popular feeling against him ; Stadion (b.
1763, d. 1824), who had become State Chancellor of Austria in 1806,
desired to make Austria the representative of this German national feel-
ing ; the services of Gentz (b. 1764, d. 1832); re-organization of the
Austrian army by the Archduke Charles.
Campaign of 1809 : the Archduke Charles invaded Bavaria, and the
Archduke John, Italy ; Napoleon entered Germany, defeated the Arch-
duke Charles at Abensberg and Eckmiihl (20. 22 Apr.) and occupied
Vienna (13 May); the battle of Aspern or Essling (21-22 May); Na-
poleon shut up in the island of Lobau ; the Tyrolese insurrection under
Hofer ; Napoleon, joined by reinforcements, defeated the Austrians at
Wagram (6 July).
By the treaty of Vienna or Schonbrunn (14 Oct., 1809) Austria
ceded Trieste, Carniola, and most of Croatia to Napoleon, who added
these districts to the Illyrian Provinces; Austria also ceded Salzburg to
Bavaria, Northern Galicia, including Cracow, which she had taken in
the final partition of Poland in 1795, to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw,
and the Circle of Tarnopol in Southern Galicia to Russia.
Causes of the failure of Austria to arouse German national feeling ;
Stadion suceeded by Metternich (b. 1773, d. 1859); Napoleon married
to the Archduchess Marie Louise (b. 1791, d. 1847), daughter of the
Emperor Francis (2 Apr., 18 10).
The Reorgajiization of Prussia. 203
The English ministry resolved to pursue the war vigorously on land
against Napoleon ; failure of the expedition to Walcheren (Aug., 1809);
successes in the war in the Peninsula ; gallant defense ot Saragossa by
the Spaniards ; though the Spanish armies were defeated, their guerilla
warfare reduced the power of the French ; Arthur Wellesley, afterwards
Lord Wellington, placed in command of the English army in the Pe-
ninsula ; his capture of Oporto (12 May, 1809); his victory at Talavera
(27-28 July); Wellington held the lines of Torres Vedras and repulsed
a French invasion of Portugal under Massena (1810-1811) ; battles of
Fuentes de Onor (5 May, 181 1), and Albuera (16 May); Wellington's
capture of Ciudad Rodrigo (19 Jan., 1812), and Badajoz (6 Apr.), and
defeat of Marmont at Salamanca (22 July); Joseph Bonaparte evacuated
Madrid (10 Aug.); the English forced to retreat from Burgos (21 Oct.),
and Joseph recovered Madrid for the last time (2 Nov.).
The growth of the national spirit in Germany : the Germans looked
to Prussia to lead them ; the Tugenbund.
The re-organization of Prussia : the ministry of Stein (b. 1757, d.
1831) ; he abolished serfdom and introduced other reforms; the war
ministry of Scharnhorst (b. 1755, d. 18 13); he passed the youth of
Prussia through the army, and in the place of conscription adopted
universal military service ; Napoleon obtained the dismissal of Stein
(24 Nov., 1808) and of Scharnhorst (June, 18 10); the ministry of Har-
denberg (1810-1822); he completed the work of Stein by making the
former serfs owners of their holdings (14 Sept., 181 1) ; foundation of
the University of Berlin (18 10); assistance rendered by William von
Humboldt (b. 1767, d. 1835); Frederick William III. forced to sign an
ofifensive and defensive alliance with Napoleon (24 Feb., 18 12).
Growing disagreement between Napoleon and the Tsar Alexander :
its causes ; Napoleon's resolution to invade Russia ; Castlereagh, who
returned to office (28 Feb., 1812), offered to aid Russia ; through Eng-
lish mediation Russia made peace with the Turks at Bucharest (28
May, 181 2) ; Russia signed the Treaty of Abo with Sweden (5 Apr.,
1 81 2) by which Bernadotte promised to aid Russia against Napoleon
and to cede Finland in exchange for Norway.
Outbreak of war between England and the United States (18 June,
1812).
204 Overthrow of Napoleo?i.
Campaign of 1812 : Napoleou invaded Russia (May); retreat of the
Russians; battle of Borodino (7 Sept.); Napoleon occupied Moscow
(14 Sept ) ; the retreat from Moscow ; almost complete destruction of
the French army.
Campaign of 18 13 : during the retreat from Moscow the Prussian con-
tingent under York abandoned the French army (30 Dec, 18 12) ;
Prussia declared war against France (16 Mar., 1813); Napoleon rallied
his army and won the battles of Liitzen (2 May) and Bautzen (20 May);
Austria signed the Convention of Reichenbach (27 June), and promised
to join the Allies, if Napoleon refused the terms offered to him ; Congress
of Prague; Austria declared war against Napoleon (12 Aug.); the
French under Oudinot and Macdonald defeated by Bernadotte and
Bliicher (b. 1742, d. 18 19) at Gross-Beeren and the Katzbach (23, 25
Aug.); Napoleon defeated the Austrians at Dresden (26-27 ^ug.) ; sur-
render of Vandamme to the Russians at Kulm (30 Aug.); the Treaty of
Toplitz between Austria and Bavaria (19 Sept.) ; Bavaria and Wiirtem-
berg deserted Napoleon ; great defeat of the French at Leipzig (16-19
Oct.); defeat of the Bavarians at Hanau (30 Oct.); Napoleon withdrew
from Germany ; general rising of the Germans against the French.
Campaign of 18 13 in the Peninsula : Wellington defeated the French
at Vittoria (21 June) and invaded France (7 Oct.).
The allied armies reach the Rhine ; negotiations with Napoleon ;
the Proposals of Frankfort (9 Nov., 18 13) ; attitude towards Napoleon
and France of the Tsar Alexander, Metternich and Castlereagh.
Campaign of 1 8 14 in France: the Allies invaded France (31 Dec, 1813);
Napoleon's victories ; the Congress of Chatillon (3 Feb.-i9 Mar.) ;
Frederick VI. of Denmark ceded Norway to Sweden in exchange for
Swedish Pomerania by the Treaty of Kiel (14 Jan.) ; the Dutch insur-
rection ; Carnot's defence of Antwerp ; the position in Italy ; Eugene
de Beauharnais remained faithful, but Murat negotiated with the Allies;
the English under Bentinck occupied Genoa (21 Apr.) ; attitude of
France towards Napoleon ; the nation refused to rise in his defense ;
the Allies signed the Treaty of Chaumont (i Mar.); Napoleon's last
battles; the Allies occupied Paris (31 Mar.); abdication of Napoleon at
Fontainebleau (6 Apr.).
Causes of the fall of Napoleon.
The Restoration. 205
Authorities : On Napoleon's interference in Spain and Portugal and on the
history of the Peninsular War, the best small book is Shand, The War in the Pen-
insula ; see Murat, Murat en Espagne ; Du Casse, M^moires et Correspondance du
Roi Joseph ; Wellington, Despatches ; Napier, History of the Peninsular War ;
Toreno, Historia del levantamieuto, guerra y revolucion de Espaiia ; and Gomez de
Arteche, Reinado del Carlos IV., and Guerra della ludependencia ; for the campaign
of Wagram, see Pelei, M^moires sur la guerre de 1809; Hormayr, Gcschichte An-
dreas Hofer, and Angeliy Erzherzog Carl von CEsterreich als Feldherr und Heeres-
organisator ; for the reorganization of Prussia, see Seeley, Life of Stein ; Periz, Das
Leben des Ministers Freiherrn vom Stein ; Ranke, Denkwiirdigkeiten des Fiirsten
von Hardenberg ; Cavaignac, Formation de la Prusse contemporaine, vol. 2, ; Stem,
Abhandlungen und Aktenstiicke zur Geschichte der preussischen Reformzeit ; and
Lehtnann, Scharnhorst, Der Tugenbund, and Knesebeck und Schon ; for Napo-
leon's campaign in Russia, see Segur, Histoire de Napoleon et de la Grande Arm^e
pendant I'annde 1812 ; for the campaign in Germany of 1813, and the rising of Ger-
many against Napoleon, see Berlin, Campagne de 1813 ; Droysen, Das Leben des
Grafen York von Wartenburg ; Pertz, Das Leben des Grafen Neithardt von
Gneisenau ; Oncken, CEsterreich und Preussen im Befreiungskriege; Droysen, Vor-
lesungen iiber die Freiheitskriege ; for the Dutch insurrection bqq Juste, Le souleve-
ment de la Hollande en 1813 ; for the defensive campaign of 1814 in France, see
Houssaye, 1814; Didot, Royautd ou Empire : la France en 1814 ; Berlin, La Cam-
pagne de 1814 ; and Fain^ Manuscrit de 1814 ; and for the diplomatic proceedings of
the period, Alison, Lives of Lord Castlereagh and Sir Charles Stewart; Castlereagh^
Correspondence ; Mettemich, Memoirs ; and Vitrolles, M^moires.
LECTURE 66
THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA.
The abdication of Napoleon was followed by the Provisional Treaty
of Paris (11 April, 18 14) assigning to him the island of Elba and an
income, and to the Empress Marie Louise the duchies of Parma and
Piacenza,
The provisional government of France under the guidance of Talley-
rand accepted Louis XVIII. as King ; on his arrival he issued the De-
claration ol Saint-Ouen (2 May), promising representative government,
liberty of worship and of the press, responsibility of ministers, guaran-
y^
206 Tiie Congress of Vienna.
tee of property acquired during the Revolution, etc., which were after-
wards embodied in the Charter (4 June, 18 14). ^Irtr-v'-t^
By the First Treaty of Paris (3c May, 18 14) Fran(^^s reduced to the
limits of 1792, with the addition of AvignonfaSd other districts within
these limits, and of part of Savoy ; she received back all her colonies,
except the Mauritius, Saint Lucia and Tobagcvwhich were ceded to
England, ^/^t.^i^t.c.^^ x^^^t.*-^ c^ ^ / 7 f 2- zul6e::j^ ^ ^tJ^i^^
It was agreed that a congress of representatives of the states of Eu-
rope should be held at Vienna to dispose of the territories on the left
bank of the Rhine, taken from Frani^e, and in generaLto settle the
.affairs of Europe, ^^n^ti:^:^/) {C2^^ -^-^ "^
.*)^|^2^^ The Congress of Vienna met^n i I\ov. 1814 ; it was attended by
*^^^nrast of the sovereigns of Europe, and those who were not present sent
^t>^jpedal envoys. ^^II^^tT-. ^^^^T" (,*2:^X>5?t:&to
The most important ambassadors were Metternicb^foi Austri^Hard- O^
l^enberg for Prussia, Castlereagh for England, and Razumovski and
m^-^'^^Sesselrode for Russia ; these representatives of the four victorious
powers arrogated to themselves the right to arrange the decisions of the
Congress. ^ i.xjJ'j*^^ •g -C^.*^*.^ gu*-*^^-^^ ,
,»A£((jUjA<?^rival of Talleyrand as the representative of Fran re ; hi.^ great diplo-
^L^ynatTc campaign ; he stood forth as the advocate of leffitimacy. and as
(f ^ the defender of smaller powers ; he adroitly made u^e of the dissensions
beUveen the four Treat powers. CA^>^^:^ft^-'t(^^^^^
The chief political questions at issue : (i) tire Tsar Alexander de-
sired the whole of Poland and Frederick William TIT of Prussia the
whole of Saxony, whose king had remained faithful to Napoleon ; (2)
•^•'^^'Tilie disposition of the territories on the left baj^^ of the Rhine ; (3) the
/ij*^ treatment of Italy, especially of Murgt, wno had abandoned Napoleon:
^■'^^^ Talleyrand's attitude upon these questio^S-^ a-^.^^-*-*-^ ^r^^^^cr*^.
In order to oppose the claims of Russia and Prussia, Austria, Eng-
land and France signed a secret treaty of alliance (3 Jan., 1815).
Eventually it was settled that Prussia should receive Eusatia, being
about two-fifths of the Kingdom of Saxony, and Russia the greater part
of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, including the city of Warsaw ; Prussia
recovered from the Grand Duchy the province of Posen, with Thorn
and Dantzig, while Austria recovered the Circle of Tamopol in Southern
Galicia, and Cracow was madeaTree stater, ^a-'^p^-cx. ^tUA^c^-x^c/) >f-
The Co7igress of Vienna. 207
^^y^ In order to establish strong powers upon the Rhine to curb France,
i>*Holland and Belgium were united as the Kingdom of the Netherlands
.^^''^and granted to the Prince of Orange, who was also made Grand Duke
of Luxemburg ; the districts comprising the former electorates of
Treves and Cologne, etc., were granted to Prussia ; the districts farther
south to Bavaria, in compensation for the loss of Salzburg and the
Tyrol, and the fortress of Mayence to Hesse-Darmstadt, to be garri-
soned by the Germanic Confederation. -v. ^ ^t»vt^
The re-arrangement of Italy : Lombardy and Venetia were given to
Austria ; Genoa was added to the Kingdom of Sardinia, in which the
succession was fixed in the Carignano line ; Tuscany and Modena were
restored to their former rulers, both Austrian princes ; Parma, Piacenza
and Guastalla were given to the Empress Marie Louise for her life, with
succession to the rightful heir, who was for the time made Grand Duke of
Lucca ; the States of the Church were restored to the Pope, and the ques-
tion of retaining Murat on the throne of Naples remained unsettled until
he defied Austria and endeavored to summon Italy to arms ; after the
defeat of Murat at Tolentino (3 May, 1815) Naples was restored to Fer-
dinand IV., who took the title of Ferdinand I., King of the Two Sicilies.
The districts on the eastern coast of the Adriatic, which Napoleon
had governed as the lUyrian Provinces, were annexed by Austria.
In the North, Sweden was confirmed in the possession of Norway,
ceded to -her by Denmark by the Treaty of Kiel, but Denmark lost
Swedish Pomerania and received instead the Duchy of Lauenburg.
In Germany, Prussia regained her acquisitions of 1803, with Swedish
Pomerania, the greater part of the Kingdom of Westphalia, and Rhenish
Prussia ; Hanover received East Friesland and other districts; and the
mediatization of the petty states of Germany was maintained.
JL^ ^ England, in addition to the colonial gains made by the Treaty of
^^,>^Amiens, retained the Cape of Good Hope, the Mauritius, Malta, Heligo-
land, and the Ionian Islands, but restored Martinique to the French
and Java to the Dutch ; Castlereagh's chief preoccupation at Vienna
was, however, to secure the abolition of the negro slave trade.
Peace signed between England and the United States at Ghent (24
Dec, 1814). >1 J^- '"-Tf^^Vfe^
ic, i«i4). -y^. lJUy/t.>CXi->^'
Before its w^ork wa^completed, the Congress of Vienna was startled
205 The Hundred Days,
by the news that Napoleon had left Elba and was again masterof France ;
it, therefore, hurried through the rest of its work by reorganizing Ger-
i. . many and Switzerland.
^'^"^^i The Germanjc Confederatioji took the place of the Confederation^ of
fKTi'Oii^ Rhine ; it consisted of thirty -five stages, in addition to Austria,
\^^ Prussia, Denmark and the Netherlands, namely : the four kingdoms of
;.-*4r^ Bavaria, Hanover, Saxony and Wiirtemberg, the seven grand duchies
of Baden, Hesse-Cassel or Electoral Hesse, Hesse-Darmstadt, Mecklen-
burg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg- Strelitz, Oldenburg, and Saxe- Weimar,
nine duchies, eleven principalities, and the four free cities of Bremen,
Frankfort, Hamburg and Liibeck ; the aflfairs of the Confederation were
entrusted to a Diet (Bundestag^ presided over by Austna and consist-
ing of an Ordinary Assembly of seventeen and a General Assembly of
siijcty-niue members.
'^^^...^^i^L^-^fe^^^'-^^ti^^i^'^^^ guaranteed neutrality by the powers of
E)uxop.e ; three new cantons, Geneva, Neufchatel and the Valais were
added ; entire independence' was given to the individual cantons and
presidency of the FgitoaLJIiet was reserved to Zurich, Berne and Lu-
I . cernejn turn.
myW^^-z^mportan^-e of the jEQtk of the CongressjoUiZiemia ; it showed a re-
on to. i^th 'cejitury ideas in trampUng on. the ideas. of natiQiialit:^^nd
the sovereignty of the people. ^^^^jt^*^'^/^^-
y*J^ The story of the Hundred Days : unpopularity and unms^cotfiduct
jZr^ of Louis XVIII.; return of French prisoners of war from Germany and
\^ Russia; Napoleon escaped from Elba and landed in France (i Mar.,
1 8 15); he reached Paris (20 Mar.); flight of Louis XVIII.; Napoleon
promised to establish representative institutions ; the Additional Act
(23 Apr.); his endeavors to raise France against the Allies ; defeated by
the English and Prussians at Waterloo (18 June); surrender of Napo-
leon to Captain Maitland (15 July); sent to St. Helena; the Allied
armies occupied Paris (6 July); restoration of Louis XVIII.
By the vSecond Treaty of Paris (20 Nov., 1815) France lost the part of
Savoy granted to her in 1814 and other rectifications of her frontier;
she had to restore to their former owners the works of art accumulated
in Paris ; she was forced to pay a war contribution of 700,000.000 francs
and to maintain an army of 150,000 troops of the Allies in possession of
her eastern fortresses for five years.
The Holy Alliance. 209
Authorities : For the history and acts of the Congress of Vienna, see Flassan^
Histoire du Congres dc Vienne ; Kliiber^ Akten des Wiener Congresses ; Angeberg^
Le Congres de Vienne et les Traitds de 1815 ; De Pradt, I^e Congrds de Vienne;
Lagatde, Fetes et souvenirs du Congres de Vienne ; Sorel, Les Trait^s de 1815 ;
Schoell, Recueil de pieces officielles relatives au Congres de Vienne ; Talleyrand^
M^moires ; Pallain, Correspondance iu^dite du Prince de Talleyrand et du Roi
Louis XVIII. pendant le Congres de Vienne ; Metiernich, Memoirs ; Alison, Lives
of Lord Castlereagh and Sir Charles Stewart ; Castlereagb, Correspondence ; Wel-
lington, Supplementary Despatches ; Ranke, Hardenberg ; Miinster, Depeschen
vom Wiener Congress ; Pidet, Biographie, travaux et correspondance de C. Pictet
de Rochemont, and Pozzo di Borgo, Correspondance. For the Hundred Days»
see the books on Napoleon already cited, with Ho us say e, 1815 ; Constant, Me-
moires sur les Cent Jours ; Vitrolles, Memoires ; and Rochechouart, Souvenirs ;
and for the campaign of Waterloo, Siborne, History of the War in France and Bel-
gium in 1815 ; Ropes, The Campaign of Waterloo ; Gardner, Waterloo ; Chesney^
Waterloo Lectures ; Ollech, Geschichte des FeldzUges von 1815 ; La Tour d' Au-
vergne, Waterloo ; and Charras, Histoire de la campagne de 1815. ^
LECTURE 6
^ 1>
THE HOLY ALLIANCE. i^^^ u^^^^^
After the signature of the Second Treaty of Parjs^e Tsar Alexander
of Russia, influenced by Madame de Krudfiner^proposed the formation
of a Holy Alliance declaring the obligation^ of nionarchs to the Chris-
tian religion; it was signed by the Emperor Francis of Austi:ia and Kfag
Frederick William III. of Prussia (26 Sept. , j8.i^l, but got by the Prince
Regent of England ; the objects and aims, secret and"avowed, of the
Holy Alliance.
Metternich recognized as the leading statesman of the Holy Alliance ;
his fear of democratic principles greater than his attachment to religion;
his intimacy with Castlereagh ; he proposed to preserve the neace^of
Europe and the force of government by frequent congresses of repre-
sentatives of the Great Powers, which should consult and act together.
Metternich's Austrian policy the reverse of that of Joseph II.; he be-
lieved in maintaining authority by preserving the diversity of language
and law in the different provinces of the Austrian Empire.
2IO Europe^ 181^-1820.
The internal policy of the Tsar Alexander I.: his attempt to establish
constitutional government as King of Poland and Grand Duke of Fin-
land; his friendship with Adam Czartor^ski (b. 1770, d. 1861), and
other Polish patriots ; his interest in the Eastern Question, and desire
to overthrow the power of the Turks ; he encouraged the Greeks, espe-
cially through Capo d'Istria, in their desire for independence.
The government of Louis XVIII. in France : the system of the Char-
ter ; establishment of responsible government on the English model ;
the two Chambers ; the two parties, Royalists and Constitutionalists ;
suppression of the liberty of the press ; repression of the partisans of the
Revolution ; the White Terror ; the first administration of the Due de
elieu (i 815-18 1 8).
The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle ; agreement of the Allies to evacuate
France (9 Oct., 18 18).
The spread of constitutional principles in Germany : indignation of /i
the Young German party at the refusal of the Congress of Vienna to ' n^b
recognize the principle of nationality or the establishment of represent- Q
ative institutions ; the spirit of the universities ; the Burschenschaft.
Certain German rulers, notably the Kings of Bavaria and Wiirtem-
berg and the Grand Dukes of Baden and Saxe- Weimar, granted repre-
sentative constitutions to their states; Frederick William III. of Prussia
had promised a constitution in 18 15 and took steps in that direction
in 1818 ; the work of William von Humboldt ; Metternich's opposi- a
tion to the liberal movement in (^^xx^xxy.p' /^i^.scJt^tr-i '^ "*^Li /^V --^^'-^^^-'^
Th^ murder of Kntzehne ("23 Mar., 1819) ; its effecfon Germany;
Frederick William III. dismissed Humboldt and did not issue his
promised constitution ; riots in Germany ; Metternich took advantage
of these risings to oppose liberal ideas; the Congress of Carlsbad
(Aug., 1819) ; the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna (15 May, 1820),
strengthening the power of the Diet of the Germanic Confederation to
interfere in the different states ; the police measures taken against Ger-
man liberalism.
The demand for representative institutions and for the recognition of
liberal principles stigmatized by Metternich as Jacobinism ; the Holy
Alliance, including the Tsar Alexander, induced to declare against
liberalism.
Insurrectio7is in Spain and Italy. 211
Secret societies formed by the supporters of liberal principles all over
Europe, in relation with each other ; in Germany and in Italy their
cause associated with the spirit of nationality.
^"^^ Insurrection in Spain (1820) caused by the reactionary government of
Ferdinand VII.; the Spanish colonies in Central and South America
were fighting for their independence ; San Martin, Francia, Bolivar and
Iturbide ; the Spaniards demanded the Constitution of 1812 ; Ferdinand
VII. appeared to yield, but appealed for help against his people to the
Holy Alliance ; Catalonia and Navarre opposed to the reforms of the
Cortes.
The situation in Italy : policy of the Italian governments ; restoration
of the Society of Jesus by the Pope (7 Aug., 1814) ; the movement for
reform, both democratic and national ; the Carbonari ; Pepe (b. 1783,
d. 1855) seized Naples (July, 1820) and forced Ferdinand I. to adopt a
liberal constitution ; democratic rising in Piedmont (Mar., 1821); part
played by Charles Albert, Prince of Carignano ; abdication of Victor
Emmanuel I., King of Sardinia.
Metternich laid the question of the liberal movement in Italy before
a congress of the powers at Troppau (Oct.-Dec, 1820J and at Laybach
(J an. -May, 182 1); Austria authorized to interfere ; suppression of the
liberal movements in Naples and Piedmont by Austrian troops. Q\
Suicide of Castlereagh (12 Aug., 1822); succeeded by CangiilJ^^fe^Xc«
Englisn foreign minister; Canning's liberal ideas and dislike of Met- v
ternich; Castlereagh's death the first blow at the solidarity of the
Great Powers in the system of governing Europe by congresses.
.Attitude of France towards the other powers ; policy of Louis XVIII.;
administration of Decazes (1818-20) and of Richelieu (1820-21) ; forma-
tion of an ultra-Royalist ministry under Villele (15 Dec, T821).
Meeting of the Congress of Verona (Oct., 1822), summoned to deal
with the revolutionary movement in Spain ; attitude taken by Canning,
who declared the intention of England to recognize the independence of
the South American republics and warned the powers not to interfere
in Portugal ; the Congress requested France to re-establish the authority
of Ferdinand VII.
A French army invaded Spain C7 Apr., 1823), occupied Madrid (19
May) and suppressed the Constitutional party in Spain ; unpopularity
212 Disruption of the Holy Alliance.
of this action among the French liberals ; plots formed against the
Bourbons.
Death of Louis XVIII. (i6 Sept., 1824); accession of his brother,
the Comte d'Artois,as Charles X. (b. 1757, d. 1836); his ultra- Royalist
ideas ; Villele retained in power.
Death of the Tsar Alexander I. (i "Dec, 1825) ; the character
of his influence on European politics since the Congress of Vienna ;
the Holy Alliance broken up by his death ; determination of his suc-
cessor, Nicholas I., to carry out his own policy without consulting
the other powers ; Metternich remained the director of the policy of
Austria and Prussia, but England, owing to the death of Castlereagh,
and Russia, owing to the death of Alexander, were no longer submis-
sive to his leadership.
Authorities : For the diplomatic history of this period, see Debidour, Histoire
diplomatique de I'Europe ; Seignobos, Histoire poHtique de I'Kurope contempo-
raine (1814-96) ; Fyffe, History of Modern Europe : Stern, Geschichte Europas,
seit 1815 ; Muhlenbecky ]&tudes sur les origines de la Samte- Alliance ; Metternich,
Memoirs ; Mazade, Un Chancelier d'Ancien Regime, regne diplomatique de M, de
Metternich \ Castlereagh^ Correspondence; Canning, Speeches ; Stapleton, Political
Life of George Canning, and Canning and hisTimes ; De Maistre, Memoires poht-
iques et correspondance diplomatique ; Pozzo di Borgo, Correspondance diploma-
tique ; Maggiolo, Pozzo di Borgo ; and Ranke, Hardenberg ; for special Congresses,
see De Pradt^ L' Europe apres le Congres d'Aix-la-Chapelle, and Le Coogres de
Carlsbad ; Bignon, Le Congres de Troppau ; and Chateaubriand, Le Congres de
Verone ; for the history of the Restoration in France, see Viel-Castel, Histoire de
la Restauration; Duvergier de Hauranne, Histoire du gouvernement parlementaire
en France (1814-48) ; Dulaure and Augtds, Histoire de la Revolution depuis 1814
jusq'ai83o; Cisternes, Le due de Richelieu (1818-21); Crousaz-Cretet, Le due
de Richelieu ; Rochechouart, Souvenirs ; Hyde de Nouville, Memoires ; Barante^
Souvenirs ; Pasqider, Memoires ; -^^^Discours ; Marcellus, Souvenirs diploma-
tiques; Ferrand, Memoires: smd^ Vitiate. Mdmoires ; for Germany, see Gervinus,
Geschichte des Neunzehuten Jahrhunderts ; Treitschke, Deutsche Geschichte im
Neunzehnten Jahrhundert ; Pfister, Konig Friedrich von Wiirtemberg und seine
Zeit; on Italy, see Bianchi, Storia documentata della diplomazia Europea in
Italia ; Nisco, Storia d'ltalia (1815-30) ; Stillman, The Union of Itaiy (1815-95);
Tivaroni, Storia critica del Risorgimento Italiano ; Colletta, Istoria di Reame di
Napoli ; Pepe, Relation des ^venements politiques et militaires de Naples en 1820
et 182 1, and Memoires historiques, politiques, et militaires sur la revolution du
royaume de Naples ; and Costa de Beauregard, La jeunesse du roi Charles Albert ;
The Easteryi Question. 213
for Spain, see Hubbard, Histoire contemporaine de I'Espagne ; Hugo, Histoire de
la guerre d'Espagne en 1823 ; and Mariignac, Essai historique sur la revolution
d'Espagnc ; and for Russia, Fordy Life and Letters of Madame de Kriidener ; La
correspondance entre le Tsar Alexandre et le Prince Adam Czartoryski ; Schnitz-
ler Histoire intime de la Russie sous les Empereurs Alexandre et Nicolas ; Bern-
hardt, Geschichte Russlands und der europaischeu Politik ; and Korff, Av^ne-
ment au trone de I'Ecipereur Nicolas I.
LECTURE 68.
THE EASTERN QUESTION: THE INDEPENDENCE OF GREECE.
The importance of the Eastern question in the history of Europe dur-
ing the 19th century ; owing to the extinction of Poland, it becomes
practically a Turkish question ;££n gland and Austria have devoted
themselves to checking the disruption of the Turkish Empire, which it
has been the traditional policy of Russia to promote?) yo^^>-6---^ a^Tv^ ^^
The position of the Turks at the time of the Congress of Vienna J^ ^^
^linetef-th^ old Muhammadan fanaticism and energy ; influence of the 's^^
Phanariot Greek families ; the government of the Sultan Mahmud II. ^
(1808-30); quasi- independence in Egypt attained by Mehemet AH
(b. 1769, d. 1849) after his destruction of the Mamelukes (181 1); the
power of AH Pasha of Janina (b. 1741, d. 1822) in Albania ; discontent
of the Christian populations under Turkish rule, of the Romanian in-
habitants of the Danubian provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia, of the
Vrinr^iiniiiirection of the Servians under Kara George (1804) ; recog-
nition of independence by the Treaty of Bucharest (28 May, 18 12) ; the
Turks nevertheless reconquered Servia and expelled Kara George ; the
second Servian insurrection under Milosch Obrenovitch (i8i5'> ; murder
of Kara George (July, 181 7) ; Milosch Obrenovitch declared himself
Prince of Servia (6 Nov. 1817).
Condition of the Danubian provinces ; loss of Bessarabia by the Treaty
of Bucharest ; continued government of Moldavia and Wallachia by
Hospodars appointed from the Phanariot Greek families of Constant!-
214 The Greek hisurrection,
\J
nople ; failure of the attempt of Alexander Ypsilanti.to raise an insur-
rection on behalf of the Greeks among the Romanians (1821) ; absence
of sympathy between Greeks and Romanians ; appointment by the
Sultan of two Romanian boyars or nobles, John Stourza and Gregory
Ghica, as Hospodars of Moldavia and Wallachia (1822).
The Greek insurrection (1821) ; encouraged, but not openly, by the
Tsar Alexander I. ; his friendship for Capo d'Istria (b. 1776) ; gallan-
try of the Greek insurgents ; Metternich declared against assisting
them ; Alexander, therefore, dismissed Capo d'Istria from office (1822) ;
strong feeling among the educated classes in England and France in
favor of the Greeks ; many volunteers, including Byron, went to their
0 Q>^ assistance ; large loans raised for them in England; "Seath of Byron
>^ (19 Apr. 1824) ; arrival of an Egyptian army under Ibrahim Pasha,
sent by Mehemet Ali at the request of the Sultan (March, 1S25).
Change caused in the attitude of Russia towards the Eastern Ques-
tion by the accession of Nicholas ; his resolution to promote Russian
I interests in Turkey without consulting the other powers ; agreement of
l^^t^^icholas with Canning to force the Turks to recognize the independ-
1^' ence of Greece (4 Apr., 1826) ; increased sympathy for the Greeks
aroused by the atrocities of the Turks at the capture of Missolonghi
(22 Apr., 1826) ; by the Treaty of Ackerman with Russia (7 Oct., 1826)
the Sultan agreed to appoint local boyars, elected by the local divans,
for a term of seven years as Hospodars or princes of the two Danubian
provinces, who could not be removed without the consent of the Tsar,
and to recognize the quasi-independence of Servia under Turkish
suzerainty.
Canning, prime minister of England (jo Apr , tS?;;:)^; Capo d'Istria
elected President of the Greek State (14 Apr.) ; Russia, England and
France signed an agreement for securing absolute independence for
^ - Greece (6 July) ; the Turks, encouraged by Metternich, refused to
*^ yield ; death of Canning (8 Aug.) ; destruction of the Turkish and
fleet by the allies at Navarino (20 Oct., 1827).
osition of the Sultan Mahmud II . ; by the massacre of the Janissa-
ries (15 June, 1826) he had destroyed his army ; the battle of Navarino
had destroyed his fleet ; nevertheless, he refused to consent to the inde-
pendence of Greece.
The Russo- Turkish War, 1828-1829. 215
The Tsar Nicholas, in the name of the Triple Alliance, attacked the
Turks, and a Russian army crossed the Pruth (7 May, 1828) ; changes
of ministry in England and France caused England under Wellington
to be less eager, and France under Martignac to be more eager, to sup-
port the cause of the Greeks ; a French force under Maison occupied
the Morea, which was evacuated by the Egyptian troops ; the Russians
repulsed from Shumla and Silistria ; successful campaign of Paskievitch
(b. 1782, d. 1856) in Armenia.
. <o)jJJ) By an agreement between England, France and Russia, the limits of
»X-^Greece were fixed, and it was resolved that some prince not belonging
,^ ft to the royal houses of those countries should be placed upon the
u. throne of Greece (22 March, 1829) ; candidature of Leopold of Saxe-
Coburg-Gotha. \lM
Campaign of 1829: Diebiteh (b. 1785, d. 1 831) at Adrianople ; terror
of the Sultan Mahmud ; by the Treaty of Adrianople (14 Sept., 1829)
the Treaty of Ackerman was renewed with the addition that the Hos-
podars of the Danubian provinces were to be appointed for life ; the in-
dependence of Greece was recognized, and the Russians were permitted
to occupy the fortresses upon the Danube as a guarantee for the pay-
ment of a large indemnity by the Turks.
Conclusion of the Greek question : the throne refused by Leopold ;
murder of Capo d' Istria (9 Oct., 1831) ; Otho of Bavaria made King of
OV^Gr^ce (7 May, 1832) ; the Morea evacuated by the French troops.
The Tsar Nicholas I. and Poland : the government of the Grand
Duke Constantine ; the indignation of the Poles at the refusal of self-
government ; the feeling of nationality maintained by secret societies ;
the Poles, who had served under Napoleon, looked to France for help
in regaining their independence.
Effect of the Revolution of July, 1830, in France upon Poland ; the
insurrection at Warsaw (29 Nov., 1830); the Russians driven from
Poland; Chlopicki, Dictator of Poland (5 Dec, 1830-23 Jan., 1831) ;
the Poles defeated the Russians at Waver (31 Mar., 1831), and else-
where ; refusal of the Powers to help the Poles ; the Austrians and Prus-
sians massed troops upon their frontiers, fearing that the insurrection
would reach Austrian and Prussian Poland : Louis Philippe of France
not firm enough on his throne to interfere ; the Poles defeated at Ostro-
2i6 "^ ir&S Eastern Question.
lenka (26 May, 1831) ; Warsaw besieged and taken by Paskievitch
(7 Sept., 1831) ; cruel punishment of the Polish msurgents ; rigorous
government of Poland by the Tsar Nicholas, ^^^"■"*-"^*^ ^^^V— .-.o..^.
Policy of Nicholas towards the Turks : by his occupation of the Dan-
ubian fortresses he kept them at his mercy ; the character and career of
Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt ; he invaded Syria (Oct., 1831) with the
intention of marching on Constantinople ; intervention of England
and France to stop Mehemet Ali (5 May, 1833) ; the Sultan Mahmud
called in the help of Russia and signed an offensive and defensive treaty
with Nicholas at Unkiar Skelessi (8 July, 1833).
Conclusion of the Romanian question : a constitution or organic law
drawn up under Russian influence for the Danubian provinces ; ac-
cepted in Wallachia (July, 1831) and Moldavia (Jan., 1832); excellence
of the administrative arrangements made b}^ this constitution, but
political power was left entirely to the boyars ; appointment of Alex-
ander Ghica to be Hospodar or Prince of Wallachia and of Michael
Stourza to be Hospodar or Prince of Moldavia (1834); evacuation of the
Danubian principalities by the Russians.
Conclusion of the Servian question : Milosch Obrenovitch confirmed
as Prince of Servia, but under the obligation to pay an annual tribute
to the Turks and to maintain a Turkish garrison in Belgrade (Aug.,
1830).
Russia's advance into Central Asia : conquest of Central Asian
tribes one of the national aims of the Russian people; importance and
value of the work to Europe; the campaigns of the Russians for the pos-
session of the Caucasus and the conquest of Circassia and Georgia ;
Russian wars with Persia ; by the Treaty of Gulistan (12 Oct., 1813)
Fateh Ali Shah ceded D?^^)if;,stan to Russia, and by the Treaty of
Turkomanchai (22 Feb., 1828) Russian influence became predominant
in Persia.
The settlement of the Eastern Question presents different problems to
England, France and Austria, which all have an interest in restraining
Russia.
Authorities : For the history of the Eastern Question, reference may be made
to the sketch contained in Debidour, Histoire diplomatique de I'Kurope ; to several
of the other works cited under Lecture 67 ; to Rosen, Geschichte der Tiirkei ( 1826-
The Reign of Charles X. 21 7
1856); to ^a//<?>'^/<?r, Histoirede I'Empereur Nicolas ; to C^w/,?, Ddptiches in^dits
aux Hospodars dc Valachie ; to Rhighojfer^ Ein Dezennium preussischer Oricnt-
politik zur Zeit des Zaren Nikolaus (1821-1830); \.o Prokesch-Osien, Mehemet Ali;
to Xenopol, Histoiredes Roumains ; to Saint- Rene-Taillandier, La Serbie, Kara-
Georges et Milosch ; Cunibert, Essai historique sur les revolutions et Tind^pendance
de la Serbie (1804-1856); and to Ranke, History of Servia. For the War of Greek
Independence, the best authorities are Capo d' I stria, Correspondance ; Prokesch-
Osteti, Geschichte des Abfalls der Griechen ; Finlay, History of the Greek Revolu-
tion; Gordon, History of the Greek Revolution ; Phillips, The War of Greek Inde-
pendence (1821-33) ; Soutzo, Histoire de la revolution grecque, and Tricoupis*
history written in modern Greek ; for the policy of Canning, see his Political Life
by Stapleton, and his Official Correspondence, ed. Stapleton; for the war between
Russia and Turkey, see Chesney, The Russo-Turkish Campaigns of 1828-29; Moltke,
Journal of the War between Russia and Turkey in Europe; and Fonton, La Russie
en Asie Mineure, ou campagne du marechal Paskievitch en 1828 et 1829; for the
Polish Insurrection, Schmitt, Geschichte des polnischen Aufstandes, 183 1 and
Mieroslawski^ Histoire de la revolution de Pologne; and, for the advance of Russia
into Central Asia, Hellwald, The Russians in Central Asia, and Popowski, The
Rival Powers in Central Asia. A list of books in French may be found in BengescOy
Essai d'une notice bibliographique sur la question d'Orient; Orient europ^en,
182 r-97.
LECTURE 69.
THE REVOLUTION OF 1830 IN FRANCE.
The position of parties under the Restoration : in the Chambers ap-
peared only ultra-Royalists, and Constitutionalists, who desired to in-
terpret the Charter of 18 14 according to the principles of 1789 ; in the
army and in military circles were many Bonapartists, and in the cities
the democratic feeling was very strong.
Character of the ultra-Royalist administration of Villele (1821-28)
during the latter years of Louis XVIII. and the first years of Charles
X. ; severe repression of Bonapartist plots and city riots ; the Royalists
endeavored to make the Constitutional party responsible for Bona-
partist and democratic excesses ; the bourgeois and educated classes of
France supported the Constitutionalists ; Royalism was confined to a
small party of the nobility.
2iS The Revolutio7i of July,
Growing importance of journalism : the work of Armand Carrel,
Courier, Thiers and Guizot.
. The character and policy of Charles X. ; he hoped by a vigorous for-
reign policy, as shown in the expedition to the Morea in 1828 and in
the expedition to Algiers in 1830, to turn the minds of the people from
internal politics, and by a close alliance with the absolutist powers, es-
pecially Russia, to get assistance from abroad in case of insurrection at
home.
The elections of 1827 gave a large majority in the Chambers to the
Constitutionalists ; Villele succeeded in office by Martignac (4 Jan ,
182S) ; the new ministry satisfied neither the King nor the Chambers,
and was succeeded by the ultra-Royalist ministry of Polignac (8 Aug.,
1829) ; the king and ministers, being unable to get a majority for their
measures, resolved to alter the Charter, for the purpose of increasing the
royal power.
Proclamation of the Ordinances, submitting the press to severe cen-
sorship and modifying the electoral laws (25 July, 1830).
The insurrection of July, 1830, in Paris ; the erection of barricades
and street fighting (27, 28 July) ; the failure of the troops to suppress
the insurrection ; Charles X., when too late, withdrew the Ordinances
(29 July) ; he resolved to leave France with his family (31 July) ; he
appointed the Duke of Orleans, Lieutenant- General of the kingdom,
(i Aug.,) and abdicated (2 Aug.) ; he reached England (17 Aug.).
Surprise of the Constitutionalists at their sudden and complete victory ;
the part played by La Fayette ; the Constitutionalists resolved that al-
though the victory had been won by the democrats of Paris it should
result in the formation of a constitutional monarchy ; the Chambers
revised the Charter from the liberal point of view, and (7 Aug.) elected
the Duke of Orleans as King of the French under the title of Louis
Philippe.
Character, career and disposition of Louis Philippe (b. 1773, d. 1850.);
difficulties of his position at the commencement of his reign ; he repre-
sented the ideas and wishes of the bourgeois and not of the whole people
of France, which weakened him at home, while abroad he was regarded
as the creation of a new French Revolution not less dangerous to the
monarchical system of Europe than the first French Revolution.
The Policy of Louis Philippe. 219
The foreign policy of Louis Philippe : importance of the service ren-
dered at this time by Talleyrand, as ambassad6r to London (Sept., 1830-
Nov., 1834); the Monarchy of July recognized by Wellington, as
prime minister of England, and cordially supported by the Reform
Ministry of Lord Grey, which succeeded to power in Nov., 1830; the
recognition by England was followed by recognition by Austria and
Prussia, Metternich and Frederick William IIL being afraid to attack
France by themselves ; the Tsar Nicholas was too much occupied with
putting down the Polish insurrection to interfere in France, and did not
desire to do so after Louis Philippe refused to assist the Poles.
The insurrections in Belgium and elsewhere which followed the Revo-
lution in France made the position of Louis Philippe very difficult,be-
cause France was held responsible for the other risings ; skill shown
by Louis Philippe and Talleyrand.
Internal policy of Louis Philippe ; doubtfulness of his title as a legiti-^
mate or as a revolutionary monarch ; his adoption of the tricolor flag ; La
Fayette appointed Commandant-General of the National Guards of
France (16 Aug.) ; the first ministry of Louis Philippe -containing
members of both the Constitutional and advanced Liberal parties ; ,
5A^^!^^affitt^ (b. 1767, d. 1 844), the leader of the advanced party, made chief
minister (3 Nov., 1830) ; changes made in the Constitution.
Casimir Perier (b. 1777, d. 1832) ; his ministry (13 Mar., 1831-16
May, 1832) ; his strong government at home and his strong foreign
policy ; abolition of^the l^ereditary peeragejjid appointment of a cham-
ber of life peers.
Significance of the Revolution of 1830 in France ; the bourgeois at
last had an opportunity of putting into effect the principles of 1789; /
results of the experiment. •
Authorities : For the goverument of the Restoration, see Viel-Castel and Du-
vergierde Hauratine, cited under Lecture 67, with Datidet, Le ministere de Martig-
nac. The Revolution of 1S30 in France is treated at length in the first chapters of
the following general histories of the reign of Louis Philippe : Thurcati-Danginy
Histoire de la Monarchie de Juillet ; Louis Blaftc, Histoirc de dix ans ; Capefigue,
L'Europe depuis I'avenement du Roi Louis Philippe ; D'Haussonvillg, Histoire
de la politique ext^rieure du gouvernement fran9ais ( 1830-48), and Hillebrandy Ge-
schichte Frankreichs ; of special value are Talleyrand, M^moires, vols, iv and v,
containing his correspondence with Louis Philippe from 1830 to 1834, and refer-
220 The Belgian hisiirrectioji.
ence may be made to Weil^ Les elections legislative depuis 1789 ; E. Pierrey His-
toire des assemblees politiques ; Casitnir Perier^ Opinions et discours ; Guizot,
Memoires pour servir a I'histoire de mon temps ; Lafayette ^ Memoires ; Bardoux\
Ives dernieres annees de La Fayette ; Salvandy, Seize, mois ; Laffitte, Memoires ,
D'Haussez, Memoires; Pasqiiier, Memoires; the Due de Broglie^ Souvenirs, and
Daudet, L,e proces des ministres de Charles X.
LECTURE 70.
THE BELGIAN INSURRECTION.
The mistake made by the Congress of Vienna in uniting the Prot-
estant and Catholic Netherlands under one monarch ; the hereditary
antagonism of the Dutch and the Belgians ; in 1815 Belgium had been
for more than twenty years a part of France and resented the govern-
ment of the Dutch.
The government of William I., King of the Netherlands ; he de-
clared Dutch the official language of the kingdom and favored his
Dutch over his Belgian subjects.
The Belgians excited by the news of the Revolution of July, 1830, in
Paris, and hoping for help from the new government of France, rose in
insurrection (25 Aug., 1830) ; a Dutch attack on Brussels repulsed
(23-27 Sept.) ; a provisional government formed, and a national as-
sembly summoned.
The National Assembly of Belgium met (10 Nov.), solemnly pro-
claimed the independence of Belgium (18 Nov.), and that Belgium
should be like France a constitutional monarchy and not a republic.
William I. appealed to the Great Powers for assistance, on the ground
that the independence of Belgium was contrary to the arrangements
made bv the Congress of Vienna ; but the Tsar Nicholas was engaged
in Poland, Metternich's attention was fixed on Italy, England, under
the Reform Ministry of Grey, sympathized with the Belgian insurgents,
and only the King of Prussia w^as inclined to assist him.
The difficult position of Louis Philippe : as the king made by the
Revolution of 1830 in Paris, he was looked on as responsible for the
Tht Indepcndeytce of Belgium, 221
Belgian Revolution by Europe and appealed to for help by the Belgians;
England, was the only great power which cared much about Belgium,
and it thought more of keeping Belgium separate from France than sub-
ject to Holland ; Talleyrand, as French embassador in London, agreed
to act with England in settling the fate of the Belgians ; a conference
of the Powers summoned for this purpose in London.
The Conference of London recognized the independence ofBelgium \
(20 Dec), and directed an armistice to oe made (9 Jan., iSjOTit tixecT
the boundaries of the new Belgian State (20 Jan.), excluding from it
Luxemburg, Maestricht and the right bank of the Scheldt ; discontent of
the Belgians with this frontier, which was evenlgalb^^^l^hUv,modified.
The Due de Nemours, second son of Lo u is^ Ph il ippe/ d^ted King \
of the Belgians over the Duke of Leuchtenberg and the Archduke
Charles; he refused the throne (17 Feb., 1831) ; ^gi^le^^de^^^ier
made regent (24 Feb.) ; Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Go3ia (b. 1790, d.
1865), the English candidate, elected King of the Belgians (4 June); he
accepted the throne under certain conditions ; the Conference of Lon- \
don, under the influence of the English foreign ,^Qinrjsteij,^^Pa^xiers ton )
(b. 1784, d. 1865), declared Belgium neutral hnder the guarantee of the 1
Powers. <^^^^^ I
William I. disregarded the armistice and suddenly invgde^^elgium
(i Aug., 1831); Leopold appealed for aid to France; vigorous action
of the Casimir Perier ministry; a French army under Geiard. occupied
Brussels (12 Aug., 1831); the Belgians accepted the terms fixed by the
Conference of London (15 Nov., 183 1); the states of Europe generally
recognized Leopold.
William I. remained obdurate; the English and French fleets block-
aded the Dutch ports; Gerard's army was directed to take the citadel
of Antwerp, the only Belgian fortress still garrisoned by the Dutch
troops; capture of Antwerp (23 Dec, 1832).
From that time the independence of Belgium was assured, though
William I. still tried to make difficulties.
The nature and character of the Belgian Constitution,
The effect of the Revolutions of 1830 in Paris and Belgium on Ger-
many; riots and risings in Rhenish Prussia, where the Catholics were
alarmed at the Protestant legislation of Frederick William III., and
222 Repressive Policy of Metternich.
where the idea of self-government was especially strong ; insurrections
and demands for self-government in other German states, notably in
Hanover, Hesse- Cassel and Saxony ; expulsion of Charles II., Duke of
Brunswick, by his people (7 Sept., 1830).
Resurrection of the Young German movement for nationality and
self-government : revival of the Tugenbund, the Burscheuschaft, etc. ^
^ Metternich attributed these political risings to the growth of revolu-\
/tionary ideas, and attacked all representative government as a form of 1
Arepublicanism and as essentially revolutionary. J
^ Metternich' s ascendency over the mind of Frederick William III.;
after 1830 he appealed to the Tsar. Nicholas and hoped to revive the
Holy Alliance. e^^Y^^^^""^ ^ ^ /^.>'v-^a^ .
The Conferences of Toplitz (7-16 Aug., 1833), and Miinchengratz '
(10-20 Sept., 1833) ; the three powers of Austria, Prus^a and Russia,
guaranteed each other's rights in Poland and took measures for crush-
ing the idea of Polish nationality ; they also resolved against the doc-
trine of non-intervention, and declared the right of any monarch, whose
position was assailed by internal rebellion, to appeal for aid to other
monarchs.
With regard to Germany, a law was passed in the Federal Diet,
through the influence of Metternich, that, in case of disagreement
between a German ruler and his people, the Confederation could
interfere to restore the powei of the ruler, and it was declared that no
constitution granted by himself could limit the right of a ruler to collect
taxes.
The elGfect of the Revolution of 1830 in Italy : the Carbonari directed
a series of insurrections ; the Empress Marie Louise driven from Parma,
and Duke Francis IV. from Modena (Feb., 1831) ; insurrections in the
States of the Church due to the repressive government of Pope Leo
XII. — Delia Genga — (1823-29) and of Pope Pius VIII. — Castiglioni —
(1829-30) ; the election of Pope Gregory XVI. — Cappellari — (2 Feb.,
1 831) ; provisional government formed for the Legations at Bologna,
under Carlo Pepcli, and rejection j)fjthe temporal_power of the^Papacy^>
Metternich sent Austrian troops^ to restore^order. in Parma, Modena,
and the States of the Church (March, 1831) ; the Italian insurgents exj-j^ ^
pected help from France ; the attitude taken by Louis Philippe and
Revolution in Portugal. 223
Casimir Perier ; the French occupied Ancona (22 Feb., 1832), which
they asserted their right to hold as long as the Austrians occupied the
"Legations ; the French evacuated Ancona, when the Austrians with-
drew (Dec, 1838).
Significance of the movement of 1830 in Europe.
Authorities: On the government of Belgium by the Dutch, see Getlache, Histoirc
du royaume des Pays-Bas depuis 1814 jusqu'en 1830; on the Belgian Revolution, see
White ^ The Belgic Revolution of 1830 ; Nothomb, Essai historique et politique sur la
revolution de Belgique ; Juste, La revolution beige de 1830, Lecongres national de
Belgique, Les fondateurs de la monarchic beige, and Leopold I. et Leopold II.,
leur vie et leur regne ; Bavay, Histoire de la revolution beige de 1830 ; and Potter,
Souvenirs. Primary authorities are Discussions du congres national de
Belgique, 1830-31, ed. Huyttens, 5 vols.; and Recueil de pieces diplomatiques rel-
atives aux affaires de la Belgique en 1830-32, ed. Verstolk van Soelen ; Thofii^setit
La constitution beige annot^e. On the revolutionary movement in Germany in
1830, see Gervinus and Treitschke, cited under Lecture 67 ; Butle, Gcschichte der
neuesten Zeit ; Deventer, Cinquante annees de I'histoire f^d^rale de I'Allemagne ;
Mucke, Die politischen Bewegung in Deutschland von 1830 bis 1835 ; and Bieder-
tnann, 1815-1840, funf und zwanzig Jahre deutscher Geschichte ; and, in Italy, see
Thayer, The Dawn of Italian Independence, Italy from the Congress of Vienna,
1814, to the Fall of Venice, 1849 ; Stillman, The Union of Italy ; and Tivatoni,
Storia critica del Risorgimento Italiano.
LECTURE 71.
INSURRECTION AND CIVIL WAR IN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.
The condition of Portugal after the Peninsular War; extent of
English influence in the Regency and the army; expulsion of the Eng-
lish officers (1820) and adoption of a democratic Constitution (1822).
Return of John VI. to Portugal (4 July, 1821); Brazil declared its
independence under his elder son, the Emperor Pedro I. (Aug., 1822);
on the death of John VI. (10 Mar., 1826), the Emperor Pedro issued the
Charter of 1826 (26 Apr.) establishmg moderate parliamentary govern-
ment and then abdicated the throne of Portugal (2 May, 1826) in favor
of his daughter, Maria da Gloria (b. 1819); the English force sent by /
Canning to Portugal to maintain order, withdrawn in 18:
224 Civil War in Pprtugal. ,
Dom Miguel (b. 1802, d. 1866), younger brother of the Emperor
Pedro, who was appointed Regent (3 July, 1827), seized the throne (30
June, 1828) ; he declared himself an absolute monarch, and persecuted
both the moderate adherents to the Charter of 1826, and the more radi-
cal supporters of the Constitution of 1822.
The reign of Dom Miguel ; both Chartists and Constitutionalists rose
in rebellion (1829) and declared in favor of Maria da Gloria ; the Em-
peror Pedro resigned the throne of Brazil (7 April, 1831) and came to
the support of his daughter's cause ; attitude of the powers of Europe
towards the civil war in Portugal ; many English officers entered the
Queen's service; the siege of Oporto; Napier (b. 1786, d. i860) de-
stroyed Miguel's fleet off Cape Saint Vincent (5 July, 1833); the Ped-
roites occupied Lisbon (24 July).
England, France and Spain recognized Maria da Gloria and formed
the Quadruple Alliance (22 Apr., 1834) ; Dom Miguel surrendered to a
Spanish and Portuguese army at Evora Monte (26 May, 1834) ; by the
Convention of Evora Monte (29 May) he was expelled from Portugal.
Death of the ex-Emperor Pedro (24 Sept., 1834) ; troubled reign of
Maria da Gloria (1834-53); repeated outbreaks of civil war and fre-
quent military pronunciamentos in favor of the Charter of 1826 and the
Constitution of 1822 ; revision of the Charter (1852) ; the career of Sal-
danha (b. 1790, d. 1876).
^ Revival of national feeling in Portugal ; rejection of the Iberianist
V £- idea.
The latter years of the reign of Ferdinand VII. of Spain, after his
restoration to absolute power by the French in 1823; the question of the
succession to the throne : Ferdinand VII., by a Pragmatic Sanction,
dieclared his elder daughter, Isabella, to be his heir ; opposition of Don
Carlos (b. 1788, d. 1855), his brother, who claimed the succession as
j male heir.
Death ot Ferdinand VII. (29 Sept., 1833) ; Isabella, a child of three
years old, recognized as Queen by the greater part of Spain, under the
regency of her mother, Christina (b. 1806, d. 1878), a daughter of Ferd-
inand I., King of the Two Sicilies ; character of Christina ; the regency
recognized by England and France.
Don Carlos opposed the regency and declared himself king ; his cause
The First Car list War. 225
favored by the clericals and by the mountaineers of Northern Spain ;
outbreak of civil war ; victories of the Carlists ; death of Zumalacarregut
(25 June, 1835).
Rivalry of England and France in the affairs of the Peninsula : per-
sonal rivalry between Palmerston and Louis Philippe ; both countries
prevented by jealousy of each other from openly assisting the Chris-
tinists, though they both as constitutional monarchies desired
her success over the Carlists; "Legions" of volunteers were, how-
ever, raised both in France and in England for the support of the Chris-
tinists ; services of Sir De Lacy Evans.
Perilous position of the Christinists ; the military revolt of La Granja
(12-13 Aug., 1836) ; Christina summoned a Cortes, which promulgated
the liberal constitution of 1837 (June) ; vigorous prosecution of the war
against the Carlists ; victories of Espartero ; defeat and flight of Don
Carlos (Sept., 1839).
Espartero forced Christina to leave Spain (Oct., 1840), and ruled the
country as Regent for three years ; his strong government and en-
deavors to put down brigandage and to restore the prosperity of Spain.
Narvaez overthrew Espartero (July, 1843), recalled Christina, and
declared the young Queen Isabella of age (8 Nov., 1843).
The rivalry between England and France for influence in Spain be-
comes more pronounced ; the policy of Louis Philippe ; the question of
the Spanish marriages ; Queen Isabella married to her cousin Don
Francisco de Assisi, Duke of Cadiz, and her sister and heiress to the
Due de Montpensier, fifth son of Louis Philippe (10 Oct., 1846).
Condition of Spain during the reign of Queen Isabella : frequent
changes in the ministry between Narvaez (b. 1800, d. 1868), Espartero
(b. 1792, d. 1879) and O'Donnell (b. 1809, d. 1867) ; backwardness of
Spain in material and intellectual progress.
Characteristics of the history of the Peninsula during the period sue- 1
ceeding the overthrow of Napoleon ; failure of representative institu-
tions and party government • to meet the conditions in Spain and
Portugal ; the meaning and effect of the pronunciamentos and civil wars.
Authorities : Upon the civil wars in Portugal and the establishment of repre-
sentative government there, see Morse Step/tens, The Story of Portugal: StmfH
Memoirs of the Duke of Saldanha ; Luz Soriano^ Historia da Guerra civi e do E>-
226 The Monarchy of July.
tabelecimento do Governo Parlamentar em Portugal ; Arriaga, Historia da Revo-
lu9ao portugueza de 1820 ; Freire de Carvalho, Memorias para a historia do tempo
que duron a Usurpacao de Dom Miguel ; Gomes de Barros e Cunha, Historia da
Liberdade em Portugal, and Bollaert, The Wars of Succession in Spain and Portu-
gal ; upon the same period in Spain, see Reynald^ Histoire de I'Kspagne depuis la
mort de Charles III.; Hubbard, Histoire contemporaine de I'Espagne; Pirala,
Historia de la guerra civil y de los partidos liberal y Carlista ; Mariano, La rcgencia
de Baldomero Espartero ; Los Valles, Don Carlos ; Bollaert; and Duncan, The
English in Spain, or the War of Succession between 1834 and 1840.
LECTURE 72.
EUROPE DURING THE REIGN OF LOUIS PHILIPPE.
The characteristics of the Monarchy of July : its founders moulded
their ideas on the English parliamentary system, including the responsi-
bihty of ministers, the annual voting of supplies, and the selection of
ministers from the legislature, but the upper House consisted of life
and not of hereditary peers, and the popular House was elected by the
large taxpayers and members of the learned professions, the franchise
being restricted to about three hundred thousand persons.
The difficulties of the position of Louis Philippe : he was opposed on
the one side by the Legitimists, who caused disturbances in the South,
and on the other by the Republicans, who caused many riots in the
great industrial cities, and especially in Lyons.
Effect of the foreign policy of Louis Philippe and of his refusal to
help the insurgent Belgians, Poles and Italians upon his position at
home.
Death of Casimir Perier (16 May, 1832).
Repression of a Republican rising in Paris (6 June), and arrest of the
Duchess of Berry (7 Nov.), who had endeavored to raise the Vendee for
the Legitimists.
Commencement of parliamentary government ; formation of the Soult
administration (11 Oct., 1832); difficulties in the way of establishing
regular parliamentary government in France ; absence of definite par-
The Foreign Policy of Louis Philippe. 227
liainentary parties; the chief parliamentary leaders, Thiers (b. 1797, d.
1877), Guizot (b. 1787, d. 1874), the Due de Broglie (b. 1785, d. 1870),
Mole (b. 1781, d. 1855), Berryer (b. 1790, d. 1868), and Odilon Barrot
(b. 1791, d. 1873) ; frequent ministerial changes.
Numerous industrial and democratic insurrections in France ;
Fieschi's attempt on the king's life (28 July, 1835); attempt of Louis
Napoleon upon Strasburg (30 Oct., 1836).
The foreign policy of Louis Philippe : his intimate relations with
England (1830-34) ; the cause of this close alliance, the distrust of him
felt by the other Great Powers; gradual weakening of the alliance ;
Palmerston, the English foreign minister, endeavored to keep France
from interfering in the affairs of Spain and Portugal ; Louis Philippe
then weakened in his attachment for England, and negotiated with
Austria, endeavoring to obtain an Austrian archduchess as wife for his
eldest son ; France and England came into collision on South American,
Asiatic, African and other questions.
The occupation and gradual conquest of Algeria by France : the re-
sistance of Abd-el-Kader (b. 1807, d. 1883); the campaigns of Bugeaud
(b. 1784, d. 1849).
Revolution in Servia ; abdication of Milosch Obrenovitch (13 June,
1839) ; death of his son and successor, Milan (8 July) ; brief reign of
Michael Obrenovitch, second son of Milosch ; his expulsion (27 Aug. ,
1842) ; election of Alexander Karageorgevitch by the Skuptchina, or
Diet, as Prince of Servia (14 Sept.).
A fresh crisis in the Eastern Question nearly caused war between
France and England ; the Sultan Mahmud IL had not forgiven Mehe-
met Ali, the Pasha of Egypt, who had conquered Syria in 1832, and
had only been prevented from overthrowing the Ottoman Empire by
the intervention of Russia and the Great Powers; the Turks invaded
Syria, but were defeated by the Egyptians near Aleppo (24 June,
1839) ; death of Mahmud II (30 June), and accession of Abdul Medjid.
The French sympathized with Mehemet Ali, but England feared that
his success would overthrow the Turkish Empire, and therefore agreed
with Russia, Prussia and Austria to intervene on behalf of the Turks ;
Palmerston resolved to break the Anglo-French alliance and by the
Treaty of London (15 July, 1840) agreed with the other three Great
2?8 The Spa7iish Marriages.
Powers to act without France ; Napier and Stopford bombarded Bey-
rout (i2 Sept.) and Acre (2 Nov.); the Egyptians retired from Syria;
and eventually (13 Feb., 1841) Mehemet Ali was forced to accept an
hereditary title to Egypt under certain conditions, and to abandon all
other claims; the Great Powers guaranteed the neutrality of the Dar-
danelles under Turkish sovereignty C13 July, 1841).
Indignation felt in France against England : war averted with diffi-
culty ; formation of the Guizot administration (29 Oct., 1840), which
remained in office till the end of the reign of Louis Philippe.
Growth of the Napoleonic legend in France : attempt of Louis Na-
poleon on Boulogne (6 Aug., 1840) ; the remains of the first Napoleon
brought to France and interred in Paris (15 Dec, 1840).
Changes brought about in the political attitude and conditions of
England during the reign of Louis Philippe ; the passing of the Reform
Bill (7 June, 1832) transferred political power from the aristocracy to
the middle classes, and subsequent reforms made the administration
more democratic ; the accession of Victoria (20 June, 1837) separated
English from continental interests, for the Kingdom of Hanover passed
to her uncle, the Duke of Cumberland, who ascended the throne as
Ernest I.
Marriage of Victoria to Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (b. 18 19, d.
1861) ; his character, and interest in foreign politics ; the Queen's first
ministers, Melbourne and Palmerston ; influence of Wellington ; Sir
Robert Peel (b, 1788, d. 1850) prime minister (1841) ; his endeavors for
peace.
The question of the Spanish marriages : Louis Philippe tricked the
English ministry, and after preventing the marriage of Queen Isabella of
Spain to the English candidate, Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,
secured the marriage of the young Queen to her cousin Don Francisco
and of her only sister to his own fifth son, the Due de Montpensier
(10 Oct., 1846).
Indignation of the English court, and ministry at the Spanish mar-
riages; Lord John Russell (b. 1792, d. 1878), who came into office with
Palmerston as foreign minister (6 July, 1846), resolved to isolate Louis
Philippe ; this government refused to discourage the revolutionary
movements on the point of breaking out all over Europe.
The Zoilverein, 229
Position of Austria during the reign of Louis Philippe: the death of
the Emperor Francis I. and the accession of the Emperor Ferdinand I.
(2 Mar., 1835), strengthened the position of Metternich ; his close rela-
tions with the Tsar Nicholas; occupation of Cracow (1836-4:) by
Austria ; annexation of Cracow by Austria (6 Nov., 1846) ; Metternich's
continued efforts to repress all movements for parliamentary institutions
or national independence in Italy and Germany ; Metternich's friend-
ship with Russia strengthened, while his influence over Prussia de-
creased after the accession of Frederick William IV. (1840).
Insignificant part played by Prussia in European politics during tne
latter years of the reign of Frederick William III.; the king's fidelity
to the ideas of the Holy Alliance and to the settlement reached by the
Congress of Vienna ; he refused to grant to the Prussians the constitu-
tion he had promised ; under Metternich's influence he opposed liberal
and parliamentary ideas all over Germany; discontent caused in
Rhenish Prussia by his Protestant sympathies j death of Frederick Wil-
liam III. (7 June, 1840).
In spite of this opposition to liberal ideas Prussia was regarded as the
one power which could unite Germany ; this doctrine held especially in
Northern Germany, fostered by the universities, and encouraged by
Prussian statesmen and administrators ; excellence of the Prussian ad-
ministrative and military system ; maintenance of the system of Scham-
horst ; Prussia became especially the guardian of the smaller states of
Germany ; the first step taken towards hegemony by the formation of
the ZoUverein.
The history of the ZoUverein or Customs-union ; the ideas and
arguments of Lisfc-(b. 1789, d. 1846) ; the Federal Diet of the Ger-
manic Confederation refused to establish a customs- union ; formation
of the ZoUverein (1833"); its chief members, Prussia, Bavaria, Wiirtem-
berg, Saxony, Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, and the petty states of
the Thuringian Union ; joined by Baden, Nassau and Hesse-Homburg
(1835), Frankfort (1836), Waldeck (1838), Brunswick (1841) and Lux-
emburg (1842); opposed to it was the Steuerverein, consisting of Han-
over, Oldenburg, Brunswick (to 1841), and Schaumburg-Lippe, as well
as the two Mecklenburgs, and the free cities of Hamburg, Bremen and
Liibeck ; commercial and political importance of the ZoUverein.
230 The War of the Sonderbund.
Accession of Frederick William IV. as King of Prussia (1840); his
character ; his hatred for France ; his liberal ideas ; he placed Kichhorn
and Boy en in ofifice, allowed exiled liberals to return, patronized German
literature and gave a measure of liberty to the press ; he formed a States-
General out of the Provincial Estates with taxing and consultative
powers only (3 Feb., 1847).
Civil war in Switzerland : the desire of the majority of the Swiss
cantons for a stronger federal bond than that devised by the Congress
of Vienna ; changes in the constitutions of individual cantons ; intro-
duction, especially since 183c, of democratic ideas ; cantonal revolutions ;
formation of the Sonderbund, by which the seven Catholic cantons of
lyucerne, Schwyz, Uri, Unterwalden, Zug, Freiburg, and the Valais
made an armed union to resist centralization and defend the Jesuits ;
the majority in the Federal Diet, presided over by Ochsenbein, decreed
the dissolution of the Sonderbund (20 July, 1847) and the expulsion
of the Jesuits ; attitude of the Great Powers; mutual apprehensions of
lyOuis Philippe and Metternich ; they deny the right of the Swiss to alter
the constitution laid down by the Congress of Vienna ; the Sonderbund
declared its intention to resist (29 Oct.); the Federal Diet declared war
(4 Nov.) ; General Dufour defeated the troops of the Sonderbund and
occupied their cantons, which submitted (29 Nov.) ; declaration of the
new federal constitution, giving greater strength to the federal power
and organizing a Swiss army, but recognizing cantonal rights in in-
ternal administration.
General apprehension of democratic risings felt in 1847 5 preparations
for revolution ; the persistence of liberal and national ideas.
Authorities : For the general history of\ the period see Z>^^/</6'«r, Seignobos, and
Fy ffe,c\tQdi under Ivccture 67. In addition to the works on the reign of Ivouis Philippe
by Duvergier de Hauranne, Thureau-Dangin, Louis Blanc, Capefigue, D^Haus-
sonville, HiUebrand, IVeil and Pierre, cited under Lecture 69, see for the latter part of
his reign and for other points touched on in this lecture, Regnault, Histoire de huit
ans (1840-48); Guizot, Memoires pour servir a I'histoire de mon temps ; Odilon
Barrot, Memoires ; Mazade, Monsieur Thiers ; Thiers, Discours parlementaires ;
Berry er, Discours parlementaires ; Lacombe, Vie de Berry er ; Barante, Souvenirs;
Due de Brogliey Souvenirs ; Talleyrand, Memoires ; Thirria, Napoleon III. avant
I'Empire ; Rousset, Conquete de I'Algerie, and Ideville, Le Marechal Bugeaud.
For the history of the English foreign policy see Le Strange, Correspondence of
The Revolution of February. 231
Lord Grey and the Princess Lievcn ; Dalling and As/i/ey, Life of Lord Palmerston;
Torrens, Life of Lord Melbourne ; PVa/poie, Life of Lord John Russell ; Gordon^
Lord Aberdeen ; Greville, Memoirs ; Slockmar, Memoirs, and Martin, Life of the
Prince Consort. For the history and development of the Zollvcrein see Treitschke,
Deutsche Geschichte im neunzehntcn Jahrhundert ; Weber, Der dcutsche Zollvcr-
ein, Geschichte seiner Entstehung uud Entwickelung, and Festenberg-Packisch,
Geschichte des Zollvercins ; for Austria, Mettemich, Memoirs ; Springer, Ge-
schichte GBsterreichs.and Krones, Geschichte der Neuzeit CEsterreichs; for the early
years of the reign of Frederick William IV. of Prussia, Ranke, Aus dem Brief-
wechsel Friedrich Wilhelms IV. mit Bunsen, and Friedrich Wilhelm IV. (in his
Werke, Vols. 50-52) ; Wagener, Die Politik Friedrich Wilhelms IV. and Bieder-
matm, Dreissig Jahre deutscher Geschichte; and for the war with the Sonderbund,
l^an Muyden, La Suisse sous le pacte de 1815; CrHineau-Joly, Histoire du Sonder-
bund ; Dufour, La campagne du Sonderbund ; Ddndliker, Histoire du peuple
Suisse, and Vulliemin, Histoire de la Confed^ation Suisse.
LECTURE 73.
THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 IN FRANCE.
Growing unpopularity of the Monarchy of July during the adminis-
tration of Guizot (1840- 1 848) ; the government alienated even the
moderate liberals by refusing to grant the smallest measure of electoral
reform ; while its rigidly Bourgeois and Capitalist sympathies exasper-
ated the Democratic and Labor parties.
The growth of democratic »d socialist ideas among the w^orking
classes of France: the influencAf Saint-Simon, Fourier, Proudhon, etc.
The movements for parlianaerftary reform and democratic revolution
in 1847 : the banquets and toasts to liberty, equality and fraternity ;
Odilon Barrot and Ledru-Rollin.
The Revolution of February, 1848 : riots in Paris (22 Feb.); resigna-
tion of Guizot (23 Feb., 1848); appointment of Bugeaud as command-
ant of Paris ; barricades erected in the streets ; Louis Philippe forbade
Bugeaud to act; he abdicated the throne (24 Feb.) and left France.
Significance of the Revolution of February ; overthrow of the Bour-
geois Monarchy.
232 The Se^Dnei Ptmck Rep^Bcr /S0.
The mob of Paris burst into the Chambers and the Hotel de Ville ;
proclamation of the Republic (26 Feb.) ; rejection of the idea of the re-
gency to be held by the Duchess of Orleans during the minority of her
son, the Comte de Paris ; formation of the Provisional Government (24
Feb.), consisting of six leading republican deputies, threejournalists
» and a working man, Dupont de I'Kure, Arago, I^amartine.^I^edru-Rol-
^0^ lin, Cremieux, and Marie, deputies, Marrast, Louis Blanc, and Flogon,
journalists, and Albert ; Garnier- Pages installed as Mayor of Paris.
Importance and conduct of Lamartine (b. 1792, d. 1869) as provis-
ional Minister of Foreign Affairs, and of Ledru-Rollin (b. 1808, d. 1874)
as provisional Minister of the Interior; Lamartine assured Europe that
the revolution in Paris was not intended to encourage revolution else-
where, while Ledru-Rollin imitated the extreme policy of the Conven-
tion, attempted to appoint pro-consuls and establish public workshops.
The extreme republican party in Paris endeavored to influence the
elections, which were taking place over France, in favor of the radicals
by numerous riots : the riot of 16 April, 1848 ; General Chan gamier
placed in command of the garrison and National Guard of Paris ; his
defeat of the insurgents.
Meeting of the Constituent Assembly (27 April, 1848); the moderate
. character and antecedents of the majority of its members ; it declared
that France was a Republic and prepared to draw up a republican con-
stitution on conservative lines ; it maintained the Provisional Govern-
ment in office ; riot of 15 May in Paris, and attempt of the democratic
party to overthrow the Constituent Assembly ; suppression of the riot
and flight of Louis Blanc (b. 18 13, d. 1882).
Critical position in Paris : the working classes of the Faubourg-
Saint- Antoine prepared for insurrection ; the moderate republicans re-
solved to resist ; General Cavaignac (b. 1802, d. 1857) appointed pro-
visional War Minister (17 May) ; concentration of regular troops in
Paris.
Severe fighting in Paris (23-26 June) : storming of the barricades by
the troops ; Paris declared in a state of siege ; supreme executive
authority entrusted to Cavaignac ; suppression of the radical party in
Paris.
The Constituent Assembly, now that peace was restored, proceeded
The Prince President Lotus Napoleon. 233
to draw up a republican constitution : the Constitution of 1848 placed
the supreme exef^ntive authority in the hands of a President of the Re-
public, elected directly by the people^ and the legislative authority in
the hands of a single Chamber. ^*.^.*l^*.>6li!J2^^~~H
Louis Napoleon, son of Louis Bonaparte. King of Holland, and
Hortense de Beauharnais, and nephew of the first Napoleon, elected
President of the Republic (10 Dec, 1848) ; he received 5.562,834 votes,
Cavaignac 1,469,166 votes, Ledru-Rollin 377,236 votes, Raspail 37,106,
and Lamartine 21,000.
Character and previous career of Louis Napoleon (b. 1808, d. 1873) :
difficulties of his position ; distrusted by the Constituent Assembly,
and both feared and hated by the extreme republicans.
Foreign policy of the Prince President : a French army, under
Oudinot, sent to Rome, which, after a repulse (30 April, 1849), occu-
pied Rome (3 July), overturned the Roman Republic and reestablished
the authority of the Pope.
Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly, and installment of the
Legislative Assembly (28 May, 1849) ; the position of parties in the
new Assembly ; the majority were moderates, in favor of parliamentary
government after the English system, believers in limited monarchy,
and very suspicious of the Prince President, w^hom they suspected of
planning to restore the Empire ; the minority called itself the Mountain,
and, under the leadership of Ledru-Rollin, hoped to establish a demo-
cratic republic.
The deputies of the3Iountain appealed to the people of Paris ; insur-
rection ot 13 June, 1849 ; arrest of the deputies of the Mountain ; their
expulsion from the Assembly ; escape of Ledru-Rollin.
The majority of the Legislative Assembly, now frankly reactionary,
endeavored to establish a bourgeois republic ; influence of Thiers, Ber-
ryer, Mole, Montalembert (b. 18 10, d. 1870) and De Broglie ; by the
law of 31 May, 1850, the suffrage was restricted to three years' resi-
dents in a commune or canton, which practically disfranchised the
working classes ; declaration of Thiers on this subject.
The Legislative Assembly on adjourning left a permanent commis-
sion of deputies to watch the proceedings of the government : disgust
of the Prince President at this action ; his resolution to appeal to
France ; his first provincial tour.
234 The Coup d'J^tat of 2 December, 185 1.
The political position in 1851 : the incurable distrust between the
Prince President and the Assembly ; struggles between the executive
and legislative authority, and frequent changes of ministry.
The Prince President, having made himself popular in France by
provincial tours, declared himself in favor of universal suffrage and the
sovereignty of the people ; his explanation of the ideas of the Empire ;
his demand that the Assembly should repeal the law of 31 May, 1850
(4 Nov., 1851).
The Coup d'E)tat of 2 Dec, 1851 : the Prince President declared the
Legislative Assembly dissolved, universal suffrage reestablished, and
Paris in a state of siege ; the advisers of Louis Napoleon and his
agents; his half brother, the Due de Morny (b. 181 1, d. 1865), General
de Saint-Arnaud (b. i 798, d. 1854), Minister of War, and M. de
Maupas (b. 1818, d. 1888), Prefect of Police ; arrest of the leading mem-
bers of the Legislative Assembly ; the troops shoot down opponents of
the Coup d'Etat in Paris.
The Prince President submitted a new Constitution to a plebiscite of
the people, establishing a strong executive and institutions resembling
those of the Consulate and the Empire ; the Constitution accepted (21
Dec.) by 7,481,231 votes out of 8, 165,650 votes, and promulgated 14
Jan., 1852.
The Prince President's provincial tour of 1852 : his reception ; enthu-
siasm in the army ; his declaration at Bordeaux (9 Oct.) ''L' Empire,
c'est la paix " ; the Senate voted the reestablishment of the Empire
(7 Nov.); it was voted by a plebiscite (22 Nov.), and the Prince President
declared himself Napoleon IILJgmperor of the FrencKl(2 Dec, 1852).
Authorities : On the history of the second French Republic, see Gamier-Pa'
ges, Histoire de la Revolution de 1848 ; Louis Blanc, Histoire de la Revolution de
1848 ; Lamarfine, Histoire de la Revolution de 1848 ; Pierre, Histoire de la R^-
publique de 1848 ; La GorcCj Histoire de la Seconde Republique frangaise ; Spuller,
Histoire parlementaire de la Seconde Republique ; with Normanby, A Year of
Revolution ; Odilon Barrot, M^moires ; Falloux, Me moires d'un Royaliste ; Ber-
ryer, Discours parlementaires ; Thiers, Discours parlementaires, and Veron, M6-
moires d'un bourgeois ; for the coup d'etat of 185 1, see Maupas, Memoires sur le
Second Knipire ; Persigny, Memoires ; Ollivier, L' Empire liberal ; Kinglake, The
Invasion of the Crimea ; Victor Hugo, Histoire d'un crime ; Tenot, Le Coup
d'l^tat ; Jerrold, Life of Napoleon III. ; Forbes, Life of Napoleon the Third ; Be-
lord, Histoire du Second Empire, and Viel Castel, Memoires.
Italy from iSjo to 1848. 235
LECTURE 74.
THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 IN ITALY.
The condition of Italy from the suppression of the insurrectionary
movement of 1830 by Austria to the outbreak of the revolutions of
1848 : the work of the Carbonari and of other secret societies ; attempts
made upon the lives of the Italian princes, and repeated outbreaks in
dififerent cities and country districts ; complication caused by the very
existence of the Papacy ; the writings of Gioberti (b. 1801, d. 1851)
and Massimo d'Azeglio (b. 1798, d. 1866).
Double tendency to be perceived in the popular movements in Italy :
with regayd^o government the middle classes desired representative
institutions and limited monarchy, while the secret societies advocated
pure democracy ; withj^egardJoJJbejyjjityjoiLItaly, one section desired
a f^eral government either monarchical or republican, while the other
favored an Italy, one and indivisible, either monarchical or republican ;
these different tendencies prevented partisans of the national spirit and
of political revolution from acting harmoniously together ; the most
influential writer and thinker was Mazzini (b. 1808, d. 1872), but his
advanced republican ideas made him obnoxious to moderate men.
Conditions of the different Italian states at the outbreak of the revo-
lutionary movement in 1848 ; the severe and arbitrary government of
Naples and Sicily under Ferdinand II. (1830-59), afterwards called
King Bomba ; unpopularity of the Austrian government in Lombardy
and Venetia ; Parma, ruled by the Empress Mariej^ouise, and Modena,
under Duke Francis IV. (1814-46) and Duke Francis V.,were entirely
under Austrian influence ; death of Marie Louise (18 Dec, 1847), ^"^
accession as Duke of Parma of Charles II., formerly Duke of Lucca ;
the government of Leopold II., Grand Duke of Tuscany (1824-1859); he
purchased Lucca (1845), ^'^^ granted a constitution (1847); Charles
'^^^toi (b. 1798, d. 1849), King of Sardinia since 1831, was desirous of
setting himself at the head of the national Italian movement, but feared
the republicans and the Carbonari ; he favored parliamentary govern-
ment and granted a constitution to his kingdom in 1846 ; his character
and ambition.
236 The Revolutioji of 18^8 in Italy.
The worst governed provinces in Italy were those of the States of
the Church, in which Pope Gregory XVI. ruled in the most arbitrary
manner with cardinals, bishops and priests as his only ministers and
administrators ; yet it was in the States of the Church that the first im-
pulse was given to the revolutionary movement of 1848 ; death of
Gregory XVI. (i June, 1846).
Election of Pope Pius IX. — Mastai-Ferretti — (16 June, 1846); his
known liberal and national ideas ; his reforms in internal administra-
tion ; he reorganized the tribunals, established municipal government,
permitted the raising of civic guards, and allowed a measure of liberty
to the press ; he proposed a customs -union between the States of the
Church, Tuscany and Sardinia ; Metternich protested against the re-
forming policy of Pius IX.; but the people of Rome accused him of
not going far enough ; a Fundamental Statute, establishing lay gov-
ernment and ministerial responsibility, issued (14 March, 1848).
Outbreak of insurrection at Palermo (12 Jan., 1848), which spread
through the whole of Sicily ; Ferdinand II., King of the Two Sicilies,
forced by tumults at Naples to promise a constitution (29 Jan.), which
was promulgated (10 Feb.).
Effect of the overthrow of Metternich in Italy ; the people of Milan
rose in insurrection and expelled the Austrian garrison (18-22 Mch.,
1848) ; formation of a provisional government which appointed Gari-
baldi (b. 1807, d. 1882) commandant of its troops; similar movement
in Venice (16-22 Mch.), where Daniel Manin (b. 1804, d. 1857) was
elected Dictator ; Francis V. driven from Modena (21 March) ; Charles
II. driven from Parma (20 March).
Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, summoned by all Northern Italy,
set himself at the head of the National movement ; he entered Milan
(26 Mch.) ; concentration of the Austrian troops under Radetzky
(b. 1766, d.1858); the Austrians defeated at Goito (8 Apr.); Leopold of
Tuscany compelled by his people to send troops to assist Charles Albert ;
Ferdinand II. , King of the Two Sicilies, forced to send a fleet to assist
Venice and an army under Pepe to join Charles Albert ; the papal troops,
under Durando, joined the Sardinians ; Charles Albert took Peschiera
(30 May); reinforcements demanded by Radetzky.
Desperate position of the Austrians in Italy; terms offered to Charles
^^L* Italia fara da se.** 237
Albert ; the intervention of England and France declined ; " L' Italia
fara da se." ""Q^iU^ wOU ^ ^-^ oSu-^w*^ " - W-:l cJU^ cS-!l.<iL>-3^,
Pope Pius IX. disavowed the action of General Durando(29 April):
Mamiani appointed Minister of the Interior of the States of the Church
(4 May).
Ferdinand II. withdrew his constitution and dissolved the Neapolitan
parliament (15 May); he vigorously pursued the war with the Sicilian
insurgents, and called back his fleet from Venice, and his army ; never-
theless, Pepe, with 3,000 men, threw himself into Venice, of which he
took military command.
Progress of the revolution in Sicily : Settimo (b. 1778, d. 1863), presi-
dent of the Sicilian Committee (24 Jan., 1848) ; services of Crispi ;
Settimo appointed Lieutenant- General of Sicily by Ferdinand II. and
a Sicilian Parliament summoned (6 March) ; the throne of Sicily ofiered
to Ferdinand, Duke of Genoa, second son of Charles Albert (11 July) ;
his refusal to accept it ; bombardment of Messina (2-8 Sept.).
Radetzky, joined by Nugent (b. 1777, d. 1862), defeated Charles
Albert at Custozza (25 July) and occupied Milan (6 Aug.) ; armistice
proclaimed between Sardinia and Austria (9 Aug.); gallant defence of
Venice ; return of Francis V. to Modena (10 Aug.) ; the Pope dismissed
Mamiani (2 Aug.), and appointed Rossi (14 Sept.), who desired to
form an Italian Federation.
Assassination of Rossi (15 Nov.) ; flight of the Pope to Gaeta (24
Nov.) ; provisional government of Rome under the triumvirate of Gal-
letti, Camerata and Corsini (11 Dec); meeting of the Roman Consti-
tuent Assembly (5 Feb., 1849) : proclamation of the Roman Republic
{9 Feb.) ; vsolemn appeal of Pius IX. to the Catholic rulers of Austria,
France, Spain and the Two Sicilies for help (18 Feb., 1849) ; Mazzini
made dictator with Armellini and Safii (30 March) ; "garibaldi ap-
pointed commander-in-chief.
Progress of the revolution in Tuscany : Montanelli appointed chief
minister (26 Oct., 1848) ; a liberal constitution granted ; flight of the
Grand Duke Leopold II. to Gaeta ; the Florentine Republic proclaimed
under the triumvirate of Montanelli, Guerrazzi, and Mazzoni (8 Feb.,
1849).
Difficult position of Charles Albert : forced to form a radical ministry
238 Failure of the Italian Revolutions,
under Rattazzi (15 Dec, 1848) ; declared the armistice at an end and
appealed to united Italy (12 March, 1849^ Radetzky utterly defeated
Charles Albert at Novara (23 Mch.) ; abdication of Charles Albert in
favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel ; favorable terms of peace granted
to the Sardinians it Au^. ).
Triumphant progress of the Austrians : Francis V. of Modena com-
pleted the reoccupation of his duchy (April, 1849) ; overthrow of the
Florentine Republic and restoration as Grand Duke of Tuscany of Leo-
pold II. (28 July), who withdrew the constitution he had granted;
Charles III., to whom his father had resigned the Duchy of Parma (14
March), returned to Parma (25 August) ; capitulation of Venice to the
Austrians (24 August).
Ferdinand II. cruelly suppressed the Sicilian insurrection ; surrender
of Palermo to the Neapolitans (11 May, 1849).
y^ The Prince President of the French Republic, afraid of allowing
Austria too much predominance in Italy, sent a French army under
Oudinot to Rome : repulse of the French (30 Apr.) ; the siege of Rome ;
capture of Rome by the French (3 July) ; Garibaldi withdrew to the
mountains where his troops were cut up by the Austrians ; return of
Pius IX. to Rome (12 Apr., 1850) and reestablishment of the Papal
government under the direction of Cardinal Antonelli ; a French garri-
son retained in Rome.
Causes of the entire and disastrous failure of the Italian revolutions
in 1848: Victor Emmanuel II., King of Sardinia, alone maintained par-
liamentary government in his dominions. fi5-W^ Qjp %ZU^
Authorities : On the Italian insurrection, see Stillman, The Union of Italy ;
Martinengo Cesar esco, The Liberation of Italy ; Thayer^ The Dawn of Italian In-
dependence (1814-1849) ; Maurice, The Revolutionary Movement of 1848-49 in
Italy, Austria and Hungary; Tivardni_ Storia critica del Risorgimento Italiano ;
Cantil, Delia Indipendenza Italiana; Ricciardi, Histoire de la Revolution d'ltalie;
Ulloa, Guerre de I'ind^pendance italienne ; Perrens, Deux ans de revolution en
ItaHe ; Pepe, M^moires, and Histoire des revolutions et des guerres d'ltalie en
1847, 1848, et 1849 ; Balleydier, Histoire de la Revolution de Rome; Spada, Storia
dellajfivgluzione di Roma e della restaurazione del governo pontifico (1846-49),
3 vols.; Farini, The Roman State, 1815-50, ed. Gladstone; Bianchi, Storia docu-
mentata della diplomazia Europea in Italia ; Costa de Beauregard, Les dernieres
annees du Roi Charles Albert ; Rattazzi, Rattazzi et son temps ; Mazzini, Scritti,
The National Spirit in the Austrian Dominio7ts. 239
editi ed inediti ; Nardi, Giuseppe Mazzini, la vita, gli scritti c le dottrine; Simoni^
Histoiredes conspirations mazziniennes ; Martin, Daniel Manin; Errera, La vita e
i tempi de Danielo Manin, and Danielo Manin e Vcnezia ; Manin, I^ettere ; Nisco,
Ferdinando II. eilsuo regno; La Farina, Storia documentata della rivoluzione di
Sicilia nel 1848-49; Montanelli, M^moires; Caniu, Storia ragionata e documentata
della rivoluzione Lombarda ; Cattaneo, ^'insurrection de Milan en 1848; Schonhals,
Erinnerungen eines CE)sterreichischen Veteranen, translated into French as Cam-
pagnes d'ltalie de 1848-49; Della Rocca, Autobiography of a Veteran ; Garibaldi, Me-
moirs ; Mario, Garibaldi e i suoi tempi ; Sirao, Storia della rivoluzione d'ltalia
dal 1846 al 1866; Riistow, Der italienische Krieg von 1848 und 1849, and Hubner, Une
ann^e de ma vie.
LECTURE 75. ' n I
THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 IN AUSTRIA.
Internal condition of the Austrian dominions during the reign of the
Emperor Ferdinand I. (1835-48) ; the home policy of Metternich ; he
encouraged the national spirit in the different provinces of the Empire
in order to play off one province against another, but he sternly re-
pressed all aspirations for self-government.
The growth of national spirit was especially perceptible in Hungary
and Bohemia, but it was also to be found in smaller provinces, such as
Transylvania, Croatia and Galicia ; condition of the German provinces;
the diverse nationalities of which the Empire was composed, prevented
any tendency towards union, and encouraged schemes of federation or
of entire independence.
The national spirit in Htmgary : the amount of local self-government
allowed to the Magyars ; the growth of Magyar literature and of
attachment to the Magyar language ; the national spirit of Hungary
becomes, under the guidance of its men of letters, also democratic ; the
Diet of 1833 abolished serfdom ; attitude of the Magyars towards other
nationalities within the limits of Hungary ; influence of Szech^njf^,
(b. 1792, d. 1 860), ^Kossuth (b. 1802, d. 1894), ^^ (b. 1803, d. 1876)
and Petofi (b. 1823^ d. 1849).
The national spirit in Bohemia : revival of the Czech language and
240 The Overthrow of Metternich.
literature ; the Czechs desired to place themselves at the head of the
Austrian Sfavs ; in Bohemia, as in Hungary, the national spirit became
also democratic, and demands were made, not oi)ly for national, but
also for popular government; influence of Dobrovski (b. 1753, d. 1829),
Kollar(b. 1793, d. 1852) and Palacky (b. 1798, d. 1876).
The German spirit concentrated in Vienna, where democratic ideas,
resembling those in vogue among the working classes in Paris and
Berlin, had taken deep root.
Effect of the news of the Revolution of February in Austria : insur-
rection of 13 March in Vienna; the Emperor Ferdinand dismissed
Metternich from office ; flight of the disgraced minister to England ;
Ficquelmont appointed minister (20 March); the Emperor promulgated
a representative constitution (25 April).
Effect of the fall of Metternich upon the Austrian provinces : general
demand for liberty and popular government.
The Hungarian Diet seized the opportunity to demand the formation
of a responsible Hungarian ministry with entire self-government; the
Emperor yielded (17 March), and the Palatine of Hungary, the Arch-
duke Stephen, appointed Louis Batthyany prime minister, with
Kossuth as Minister of the Interior ; delight of the Magyars at this
success ; a Constituent Diet summoned to draw up a constitution for
Hungary.
The Emperor further held out hopes of constitutions and self-govern-
ment to the Slavonic Provinces (March to April) : a Pan-Slavonic as-
sembly summoned to meet at Prague on 31 May.
Effect of the insurrection in the Austrian province? in Italy : defeat
of Radetzky at Goito (8 April) ; the Emperor obliged to strip his home
dominions of troops in order to send reinforcements to Radetzky.
Dissatisfaction of the people of Vienna at the prospect of the Austrian
Empire being split into autonomous provinces : disgust of the working
classes at the non-recognition of democratic principles ; dismissal of
Ficquelmont (4 May) ; second popular insurrection in Vienna (15 May);
a Constituent Assembly for the whole Austrian Empire called to meet
in Vienna ; the Emperor Ferdinand escaped to Innsbruck (17 May) and
threw himself upon the fidelit}^ of the Tyrolese.
Desperate position of the Austrian monarchy : seeming approach of
The Revolution of 184.8 in Austria. 241
disintegration ; the strength of the opposition to Austria in Italy,
Hungary and Bohemia; attitude of the Parliament of Frankfort towards
the Hapsburgs; desire expressed to keep Austria out of reconstituted
Germany.
In the diversity of aims of the dififerent revolutions the Hapsburg
monarchy found safety ; the Emperor Ferdinand, to please his German
subjects, resolved to act vigorously against the Slavs.
Insurrection of the Poles at Cracow X26 Apr.) suppressed; Francis
Stadion (b. 1806, d. 1853) pacified Galicia and granted reforms.
The Pan-Slavonic Congress opened by Palacky at Prague (2 June);
a popular demonstration against Windischgrat^(b. 1787, d. 1862;, the
Austrian governor of Prague, ended In'stree't-fightrng (12-14 June);
bombardment of the city (15-17 June); end of the Pan-Slavonic Con-
gress ; reduction of Bohemia to obedience.
In Transylvania the Magyars and Germans, who controlled the prov-
incial Estates, voted to unite Transylvania with Hungary (30 May),
because the Romanian population demanded equal rights in the gov-
ernment ; an insurrection in the Danubian provinces (22-25 June)
brought about the occupation of those provinces by the Russians and
the Turks.
At the demand of the southern Slavs the Emperor appointed Jelia-
chich (b. 1 801, d. 1859), Ban of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia (23
Mar.); popular movement for a united kingdom of the southern Slavs,
independent of Hungary ; the Hungarian ministry persuaded the Em-
peror to disgrace Jellachich (10 June).
Progress of the revolution in Hungary ; meeting of the Constituent
Diet (5 July); the new Hungarian constitution ; influence of Kossuth ;
the Magyars issued oppressive decrees against the Slavs and Romanians
in Croatia, Slavonia, Dalmatia, Transylvania and the Banat of
Temesvar ; insurrections in those districts against the Magyars ; the
Russians in Transylvania.
The Constituent Assembly, containing representatives of all parts of
the Empire, except Hungary, met at Vienna (22 July); the Archduke
John, who had been elected Vicar of the Empire at Frankfort (29 June),
returned to represent the Emperor at Vienna; the Constituent Assembly
abolished the corvde, noble-land and other relics of feudalism.
242 WindLSchgratz a?id Schwar 2671 berg.
After the news of the victory of Custozza (25 July), the Emperor
resolved to act more firmly against Hungary ; he reentered Vienna
(12 Aug.); he restored Jellachich to all his dignities (4 Sept.); Jellach-
ich invaded Hungary (9 Sept.); the Diet prepared to resist and chose
Kossuth, President of the Committee of Public Safety (22 Sept.); the
Palatine of Hungary, the Archduke Stephen, refused to obey the Diet
and escaped to Vienna (24 Sept.); I^amberg, who was sent to replace
the Palatine, murdered at Pesth (28 Sept); the Emperor declared the
Hungarian Diet dissolved, appointed Jellachich, Commissioner Plenipo-
tentiary in Hungary, and ordered the army to suppress the revolt (3
Oct.).
Third insurrection in Vienna (6 Oct.); sympathizers with the Mag-
yars^ attempted to prevent troops from reinforcing Jellachich in Hun-
gary ; murder of Latour, the Minister of War ; flight of the Emperor
to Olmiitz ; he directed the Constituent Assembly to leave Vienna (20
Oct.) and to assemble at Kremsier ; only the Slav deputies obeyed ; the
German deputies remained in Vienna to form a provisional government ;
they negotiated with the German Parliament at Frankfort, which recog-
nized them and sent Robert Blum and two other deputies to their as-
sistance ; Jellachich, from Hungary, and Windischgratz, from Prague,
hastened against the insurgents ; bombardment of Vienna ; attempt of
the Magyars to relieve the city ; Windischgratz entered Vienna (31
Oct.), established martial law, and shot Robert Blum (8 Nov.); wrath
of the Parliament of Frankfort.
/Schwarzenberg (b. 1800, d. 1852) appointed chief minister (21 Nov.);
reopening of the Constituent Assembly at Kremsier (22 Nov.), but
\ Schwarzenberg occupied it in aimless discussions ; abdication of the
AXiTEuiperor Ferdinand (2 Dec.) in favor of his nephew Francis Joseph (b.
y 1830).
^ Vigorous policy of Schwarzenberg : Kossuth and the Diet forced to
withdraw from Pesth to Debreczin (i Jan., 1849) ; Windischgratz and
Jellachich occupied Pesth (5 Jan.) ; formation of Hungarian armies,
placed under the command of Dombrovski, Bem and Gorgei; Schwarz-
enberg dissolved the Diet of Kremsier (4 Mar.) and promised a unitary
constitution to the Austrian Empire and the recognition of the equality
of the various nationalities ; Kossuth and the Diet declared the inde-
End of the Insurrection in Hungary, 243
pendence of Hungary (14 Apr.) ; Kossuth chosen Governor- President ;
Gorgei recaptured the fortress of Buda (21 May) ; return of the Hun-
garian government to Pesth (5 June).
The Emperor Francis Joseph announced (i May, 1849) that the Tsar
Nicholas had consented to assist in subduing the Magyars ; a Russian
army under Paskievitch entered Hungary (May) ; the armies under
Paskievitch, Haynau, Nugent and Jellachich defeated the Hungarian
armies and drove them toward the Turkish frontier ; Kossuth resigned
in favor of Gorgei (11 Aug.) and escaped into Turkey ; capitulation of
Gorgei at Vildgos (13 Aug.); Klapka held out at Komorn until 27 Sept.,
when he was forced to sign a capitulation by which he surrendered the
place (4 Oct.) ; atrocities committed by Haynau ; execution of Batthy-
any and the leading Magyar generals (6 Oct.) ; end of the insurrection
in Hungary.
End of the insurrection in Italy : capture of Venice (24 Aug., 1849).
The German policy of Schwarzenberg : his attitude toward the Parlia-
ment of Frankfort ; he prevented Frederick William IV. of Prussia
from accepting the imperial throne offered to him by the Parliament,
and insisted upon the right of Austria to be treated as a constituent
part of Germany.
Authorities : Leger, Histoire de rAutriche-Hongrie, translated by Hill ; Mau-*
rice. The Revolutionarj- Movement of 1848-49 in Italy, Austria and Hungary ; £al-
/^jj'fi?/>/^""HTstoire"^s Revolutions de I'Empire de I'Autriche ; Piliersdorf, Riick-
blick auf die politische Bewegung in CEsterreich in den Jahren 1848 und 1849 ;
Ficqiielmont, Aufklarungen iiber die Zeit vom 20 Miirz bis zum 4 Mai 1848 ; Frobely
Briefe iiber die Wiener Oktober-Revolution, mil Notizen iiber die letzten Tage
Robert Blums ; Auerbach, Tagebuch aus Wien ; Hubner, Une Anti6e de ma Vie ,
Helfert, Geschichte CEsterreichs vom Ausgange des Wiener Oktober-Aufstandes ;
Berger, Felix, Fiirst zu Schwarzenberg ; Windischgrdtz, Eine Lebens-Skizze, aus
den Papieren eines Zeit-genossen der Sturm jahre 1848 und 1849; Reschauer, Das
Jahr, 1848; Bach, Die Wiener Revolution, 1848; Yranyi and Chassin, Histoire
politique de la Revolution de Hongrie en 1847-49 ; Bur}\ Souvenirs et R^cits
des Campagnes d'Autriche ; Martin, Guerre de Hongrie en 1848 et 1849 ; Riistow,
Geschichte des ungarischcn Insurrectionskrieges in den Jahren 1848 und 1849 ;
Gorgei, Mein I^eben und Wirken in Ungarn ; Klapka, Der Nationalkrieg in Un-
garn und Siebenbiirgen, of which there is an English translation, and Kossuth^
Memoirs.
244 Insurrections in Berlin a?id Munich.
IvECTURE 76.
THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 IN GERMANY.
Effect of the Revolution of February in Germany : general desire for
£0^ulaT_government in Western Germany ; the states upon the Rhine
and in the former kingdom of Westphalia were especially forward in
this direction ; there had been numerous riots in Rhenish Prussia, Hesse-
Cassel and Brunswick; as in Italy, the natiqnal spirit and the demo-
cratic movement were sometimes in harmony and sometimes opposed
to each other ; one section of advocates of German.jtuuly_loQk£d_la
Prussia to lead them ; the other, which was more democratic, hoped for
an independent and ppsgibly republican German nation. ^tsl^l^^Jlil^itl*'^
Both the national and the democratic spirit were most evident in the
smaller states and in Rhenish Prussia : but they were also developed to
some extent in the South German states of Bavaria under King Eouis
I. (1825- 1 848), of Wiirtemberg under King William I. (18 16-1864),
and of Baden undei the Grand Duke Charles Leopold (1830-1852),
while in Hanover under Ernest I. (i 837-1 851) they were especially de-
veloped.
The share of the German universities in promoting the national and
liberal spirit ; the dismissal of Gervinus, Dahlmann, Ewald and the
two Grimms, from their chairs at Gottingen, for protesting against the
abolition of the Hanoverian constitution by Ernest I. in 1837.
The first effect of the Revolution of February was seen in risings in
the great cities, similar to those which occurred in Paris and in Vienna ;
the most important of the risings were in Berlin and in Munich.
The first insurrection in Berlin (15-19 March, 1848): Frederick Wil-
liam IV. (b. 1795, d. 1 861) gave way before the popular feeling; sent his
brother and heir. Prince William (b. 1797, d. 1888), who was suspected
of opposition to popular wishes, to England; convoked the States-Gen-'
erai, and summoned a Constituent Assembly to draw up a constitutiotl
for Prussia (22 March). i
Insurrection in Munich against King Louis I. (b. 1786, d. 1868), who
was accused of showing too much favor to his mistress, Lola Montes ;
The Parliament of Frankfort, 245
he abdicated the throne (20 March) in favor of his son Maximilian
Joseph II. (b. 181 1, d. 1864), who promised reforms.
A group of German patriots and unionists met at Heidelberg (5!^
March) and summoned a Vor-Parlament, which assembled at Frankfort l vw^
(31 March); this assembly' convoked a Constituent Parliament, to be V^
elected by universal suffrage by the whole of Germany, which should I ^
organize a federal German government under a monarch ; it was re- 1 ^
solved that the decisions of this Constituent Parliament should be W'
final, and not subject to the control of the Federal Diet. y^
The Federal Diet, established by the Congress of Vienna, withdrew
its decrees of 1832-34, controlling state governments, and then ceased
to oppose the new movement.
In the face of the strength of the revolutionary movement the Ger-
man Princes permitted elections to the Constituent Parliament.
Meeting of this Parliament in St. Paul's church at Frankfort (18 »^
May, 1848), with Heinrich von Gagern (b. 1799, d. 1880) as its presi-
dent; it elected the Archduke John of Austria as Vicar of the Empire j^
(29 June); he took office (12 July), dissolved the Federal Diet, and
appointed Schmerling chief minister; the Parliament of Frankfort,
with long debates, drew up the "Grundrechte," or bases of a German
Constitution (July-Oct.) ; the undemocratic nature of this scheme
caused protests from many of the cities of Germany. ^^^^ '""^-^^-''^'^^^'^X^c^ZX,
The position in Prussia : Frederick William IV. took advantage of
the condition of affairs in Denmark to stand forward as the defender of
German interests.
Death of Christian VIII. of Denmark and accession of Frederick VII.
(20 Jan., 1848); the king promised (28 Jan.) to summon a Constituent
Assembly, chosen by universal suffrage, to draw up a Constitution
which should unify Denmark and the Duchies of Schleswig and Hol-
stein, in spite of the latter being parts of the Germanic Confederation ;
wrath in Germany at this news ; insurrection in the duchies (18 Mar.);
jdemand made for the entire separation of Schleswig- Holstein from Den-
Imark and their union with Germany ; provisional government for the
■duchies established by tne insurgents at Kiel (24 Mar.); the Duke of
Augustenburg set himself at the head of this opposition in the two
duchies ; the Danes routed the insurgents near Flensburg (9 April),
246 The Revolution of 184.8 in Gennany.
but Prussia, with the sanction of the Parliament of Frankfort, invaded
the duchies, defeated the Danish army (23 Apr.), and had almost con-
quered the whole of Denmark, when the Great Powers intervened and
insisted on the signature of the Armistice of Malmo (26 Aug.).
Frederick William IV. of Prussia, though he showed himself by his
conduct in Denmark in favor of German interests, also showed himself
the enemy of democracy ; at the request of the Parliament of Frank-
^'^^^Tort he sent Prussian troops to that city to put down a republican insur-
'TV rection (18 Sept.), and then, also at their request, put down democratic
*'^*^^.risings throughout the Rhenish territories.
^*'**^^ 'Second insurrection in Berlin (31 Oct., 1848); the king appointed
Brandenburg (b. 1792, d. 1850) and ManteufFel (b. 1805, d. 1882) his
ministers (3 Nov.), declared Berlin in a state of siege (10 Nov.;, dis-
solved the Prussian Constituent Assembly which had shown in the
Junker party a strong minority opposed to democratic ideas (5 Dec),
and issued of his own authority a new constitution for Prussia, giving
a moderate amount of representative government C5 Dec).
lyater history of the Parliament of Frankfort ; Gagern succeeded
Schmerling as chief minister (15 Dec, 1848) ; completion of the new
German Constitution (3 Feb., 1849), with two chambers, the Volkhaus,
elected by universal suffrage, and the Staatenhaus, chosen by the par-
liaments of the different states ; it recognized no direct representation
of the German princes, and gave to the supreme executive authority
only a suspensive veto.
The question of the admission of Austria, with her non-German popu-
lations, as part of the new German Empire ; it was resolved that Aus-
tria should be completely excluded (14 Jan., 1849); the imperial crown
offered to Frederick William IV. of Prussia (28 Mar.); he declined to
accept unless invited by the princes of Germany (3 Apr.), and eventu-
ally, under the influence of Schwarzenberg, refused unconditionally
(28 Apr.).
Indignation of Schwarzenberg at the decree of 14 Jan.; he with-
drew the Austrian deputies from the Parliament of Frankfort (5 Apr.).
Last days of the Parliament of Frankfort ; Gagern resigned office
(10 May), and with his followers formed a secession parliament which
met at Gotha (26-28 June); Prussia withdrew its deputies (14 May);
Failure of the Germaii Revolutions. 247
the Parliament, reduced to 105 members, forced to leave Fr^kfort (30
May); it met at Stuttgart and eventually was broken up by the King of
Wiirtemberg (18 June).
Frederick William IV. of Prussia lent troops to the Kings of Saxony
and Hanover to establish order in their dominions (June) ; under the
command of Prince William of Prussia order was also reestablished by
Prussian soldiers in Baden and along the Rhine (July).
Continuation of the Danish war : Frederick VII. of Denmark granted
a liberal constitution (5 June, 1849); gallant struggle of the Danes
against the Prussians; conclusion of peace (2 July, 1850); it was
eventually arranged that the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein should
be garrisoned by a joint force of Austrians and Prussians, and that
their fate should be decided by a conference of the Great Powers.
Result of the revolutionary movement of 1848 in Germany; entire
failure both of the democratic party and of the supporters of the parlia-
mentary system ; postponement of the unity of Germany.
Authorities : There are several reports of the proceedings of the Parliament of
Frankfort, of which the most complete is Wigard, Stenographische Bericht, 9
vols.; see also Duncker, Zur Geschichte der deutschen Reichsversammlung in
Frankfurt ; Haym, Die deutsche Nationalversammlung ; Raumer, Briefe aus
Frankfurt und Paris ; Biedermann, Erinnerungen aus der Paulskirche ; Ranke^
Politische Denkschriften aus den Jahren 1848-185 1 (Wcrke, vols. 49, 50); Deym^
Graf Deym und die CEsterreichische Frage in der Paulskirche ; Becker, Die Reak-
tion in Deutschland gegen die Revolution von 1848 ; Syhel, Die Begriindung des
deutschen Reich es ; Moltke, Geschichte des Krieges gegen Danemark, 1848-49,
and Bunsen, Memoirs.
LECTURE 77,
EUROPE AFTER THE REVOLUTIONS^ 1848.
The revolutionary movement of 1848 ^n England ; the Chartists ;
results of the abolition of the Corn -laws. ^^ rTl^
The revolutionary movement of 1848 in -W^Wira : the reign of
William II. (1840-49) ; succeeded by William III. (17 March, 1849) ;
248 ^/^ g/^ ' The Danubian Proviiices in 184.8.
the representative constitution of the kingdom of the Netherlands re-
modelled in a more liberal sense; administration of Thorbecke (b. 1798,
d. 1872).
The revolutionary movement of 1848 in Belgium : excitement caused
by the news of the Revolution of February ; Leopold I. evaded a re-
publican movement by skillful policy^ ; his ability as a parliamentary
sovereign. ;?Xi^:;:i^i^(&r:^*^^r*:^
The revolutionary movement of 1848 in the two Danubian provinces:
growth of national Romanian sentiment and of liberalism; attitude
CtD'wards the Slavs and Magyars ; resentment against Russia ; influence
of France ; deposition of Alexander Ghica and election of George
^^.Bibescoas Hospodar of Wallachia ri8zi2^ : attempted insurrection at
Jassy (27 March, 1848); prudent conduct of Michael Stourza, Hospodar
of Moldavia ; insurrection at Bucharest (22 June, 1848) ; abdication of
Bibescc (25 June) ; intervention of Russia and the Turks ; Ri^ssian
and Turkish troops occupied the two provinces; by the Convention of
Balta-Liman (12 May, 1849), the hospodarship for seven years was
revived, the assemblies of boyars were suppressed and replaced by
divans nominated by the princes, and Russian and Turkish troops were
to garrison the two provinces until they were organized; resignation of
Michael Stourza ; appointment of Gregory Ghica as Hospodar of
-^Moldavia, and of Barbe Stirbeiu as Hospodar of Wallachia.
rV A^ Influence exercised by Prussia in Germany after the suppression of
f\A the revolutionary movement : Frederick William IV. hoped to exclude
Austria^ and to^ be chosen Emperor by the pnnces5llG^5?^-By 5 the
League of the Three Kings — Prussia. Saxony and Hanover (26 May<^^
1849) ; scheme of a Restricted Union ; Prussia prepared a scheme for
a united Germany under her leadership to be submittted to a revived
German Parliament at Erfurt and to the German princes ; only the
petty princes accepted the Prussian scheme.
Austria, having put down all rebellion and supported by Russia, re-
solved to intervene : the Archduke John resigned his authority as Vicar
of the Empire to a committee of four, appointed half by Austria and half
by Prussia (20 Dec, 1849).
Beust's scheme of a Middle Germany : treaty of alliance made be-
tween Saxony, Bavaria and Wiirtemberg (27 Feb., 1850).
^
Austria and Prussia after 184.8. 249
The Parliament of Erfurt (20 Mar.-29 Apr., 1850) : only attended by^ V\
Prussia and representatives of the petty princes ; part played by Bis-* <k
juaickCb. 1815, d. 1898) ; the Parliament refused to accept the Prussian/ ^J*t>
scheme, followed by a similar refusal by the German princes, who had
been assembled at Berlin (8 May).
Growing influence of Austria in German affairs during the ministry of
Schwarzenberg : ad interim revival of the Diet of the Germanic Con-
federation or Bundestag (2 Sept., 1850), which undertook to deal with
the disturbances in Schleswig-Holstein and Hesse-Cassel ; opposition }
of Prussia ; approach of war ; the Prussian and the German federal
troops, supported by Austria, faced each other in Hesse-Cassel; the Tsar
Nicholas intervened and threatened to attack whichever side began
war.
Frederick William IV. yielded : Manteuffel (b. 1805, d. 1882) ap-
pointed provisional Minister of Foreign Affairs (2 Nov., 1850), and
Minister- President (19 Dec, 1850); the Convention of Olmiitz (29 Nov.,
1850); apologies of Prussia; r3storation of the Bundestag (30 May,
1851) ; T^ifyinfirrk appointed PrussJan representative in the Bundestag
at Frankfort.
Negotiations for the renewal of the ZoUverein : endeavors of Austria
to enter the Union ; opposition of Prussia ; the Steuerverein declared ^
its readiness to enter the ZoUverein Ty Sept.. i8'^i) : reconstitution of ^ ^
the ZoUverein on this basis, with Austria excluded (4 Apr., 1853).
General reaction in Germany : most of the German princes withdrew
or modified the constitutions they had granted in 1848 ; the Bundestag
repudiated the " Grundrechte " decreed by the Parliament of Frankfort
(23 Aug., 1851).
The reaction in Prussia : repressive administration of Manteuffel ;
Prince William commenced to reorganize the army.
The reaction in Austria ; the Emperor Francis Joseph withdrew the
Constitution of 4 March, 1849 (31 Dec, 1851); death of Schwarzenberg
(5 April, 1852) ; appointment of Buol-Schauenstein as chief Austrian
minister.
Temporary settlement of the Schleswig-Holstein question : Frederick
VII., of Denmark, issued a unitary constitution for all his dominions
(28 Jan., 1852) ; Prince Christian of Gliicksburg recognized as heir to
throne of Denmark by the Conference of London (8 May, 1852).
250 , ^ ^ The Emperor Napoleoji III.
^ The institutions of the Second Empire in France : relations of the
government to the Council of State, the Senate and the I^egislative j^
Body ; while granting the widest extension of the franchise for electing ^
the lyCgislative Body, the administration_s^ematically interfered to pro-
mote the election of government candidatesT^^^f^g^u^^L'^i^^^'
Napoleon III. and his ministers : the Bonapartists and some of the
partisans of the Monarchy of July rallied to him, but he had to face the
opposition of the Legitimists and the Republicans ; he was unfortunate
in the selection of ministers and had to make use of men of doubtful ^^
honesty in the work of administration ; the influence of the Due de ) ^
Morny, Persigny (b. 1808, d. 1872), Rouher and Maupas.
Parliamentary opposition during the Second Ernpire : Thiers ; exile
or deportation of the leading Republicans. |;t2^^^ . ^^^^ ^^^
Attitude of the Great Powers towards the Second Empire : England,
hoping for the assistance of France in the settlement of the Eastern
Question, at once recognized him as Emperor ; the Tsar Nicholas recog-
nized him in an insulting fashion, and was followed by Austria and
Prussia (6 Jan., 1853); Napoleon's first foreign ministers; Drouyn de
Lhuys (b. 1805, d. 1881) and Walewski (b. 1810, d. 1868).
Being unable to obtain the hand of a foreign princess, Napoleon III.
married Eugenie de Montijo. Comtesse de Teba (29 Jan., 1853).
Internal policy of Napoleon III. : he professed, owing to his election
hy plSbiscite, to represent the sovereignty of the people, and stood forth
as the opponent of bourgeois or middle class politics ; he exploited the
wealth of France in extravagant buildings and public works ; Paris re-
built by Haussmann ; corruption of the administration ; attempts of
Napoleon III. to blind the people by a vigorous foreign policy.
Foreign policy of Napoleon III. ; though he declared the Empire to
mean peace, he really desired war, in order to establish himself firmly
at home and abroad.
Authorities : For the general history of this period see, in addition to Seigno-
bos, Debidour, and Fyffe, cited under Lecture 67; Rothan, L' Europe et I'avenement
du Second Empire ; Vitzthum von Eckstddt, Berlin und Wien in den Jahren 1845-
1852, and Viel-Castel, Memoirs ; for the Second Empire, Delord, Histoire du
Second Empire ; La Gorce, Histoire du Second Empire ; Jerrold, Life of Napoleon
III.: Harcourt, Les quatre ministeres de M. Drouyn de Lhuys ; Maugny, Souven-
The Romantic Movemertt in Literature. 251
irsof the Second Empire ; Falloux, M^iuoires d'un royaliste ; Persigny, M^moircs;
Haussntann, M^moires ; Ollivier, L' Empire liberal ; Senior, ConversHtioiis, 2
series ; Castellane, Journal, and Thiers, Discours parlemeutaircs ; for Germany,
see Berger^ Felix, Furst zu Schwarzenberg ; Bunsen, Memoirs ; Beust^ Memoirs ;
Lowe, Life of Prince Bismarck ; Bismarck, Gedenkschriften uud Erinnerungen,
translated by Butler, Gesammelte Werke, and Politische Reden ; Hahn, Furst
Bismarck ; Kohl, Fiirst Bismarck ; Poschinger, Furst Bismarck, and Simon,
Histoire du Prince de Bismarck ; for English foreign policy, Martin, Life of the
Prince Consort ; Dalling and Ashley, Life of Lord Palmerston ; IVal'pole, Life of
Lord John Russell, and Malmesbury, Memoirs of an ex- Minister ; for Belgium,
Juste, Leopold L et Leopold II., rois des Beiges, leur vie etleur regne; Thonissen,
La Belgique sous le regne de Leopold I., and Hymans, Histoire parlementaire de
Belgique de 1830 a 1880; for Holland, Bosch-Kemper, Geschiedenis van Neder-
land na 1830 ; and for Romania, Xenopol^ Histoire des Roumains, and Bibesco^
R^gne de Bibesco (1829-59;.
LECTURE 78.
LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY FROM 1789 To 1848.
Effect of the French Revolution and of Napoleon's conquests on
European literature ; political unrest accompanied by a great literary-
outburst ; this not so noticeable in France, where politics absorbed the
nation, as in England and Germany; the spirit of nationality aroused
by Napoleon began to show its effect before Waterloo.
The period between 18 15 and 1848 was marked by the romantic
movement in literature, which developed independently all over Europe :
causes of the romantic movement ; reaction against classicism ; its de-
velopment affected, in some writers, by revival of Christian religious
sentiment, as in Chateaubriand ; in others, by a new sympathy with the
Middle Ages, as in Scott and Hugo ; in others, by love of nature and
an attempt to interpret her, as in Wordsworth ; in others, by a mystic
sentimentalism, as in Jean Paul Richter ; and in others, by a pessimistic
self- consciousness, as in Byron, Lamartine and Pushkin.
The feeling for nationality showed itself in literature, after an out-
burst of patriotic poetry, in the revival of the study of history ; over-
252 Literature from lySg to 184.8.
throw of national legends and beginning of scientific history ; influence
of Niebuhr ; intere^ taken in the history of the Middle Ages ; com-
mencement of the systematic publication of documents ; the English
Record Commission (1802), the Monumenta Germanice Hlstorica (1826),
the Documents inedits sur Vhistoire de France (1835); the foundation of
the £^cole des Chartes (1821).
French literature of the Revolution : its political character ; the great
orators and their written speeches; Mirabeau (i 749-1 791); Vergniaud
(1759-1793); Robespierre (1758-1794); poUtical journalism ; Camille
Desmoulins (1762-1794); the Revolutionary drama ; CoUot d'Herbois
(1750-1796); Marie Joseph Chenier (1764-1811); poetry; Andre Che-
nier (1763-1794); criticism ; La Harpe (i 739-1 803).
French literature of the Empire ; its classicism and sterility ; Ducis
(1733-1816); Fontanes (1757-1821); Napoleon's attitude towards liter-
ature ; his admiration of the so-called poems of Ossian ; the most popu-
lar French writer of the period, Madame de Stael (1766-1817); publi-
cation of Chateaubriand's Le Genie du Christianisme (1802) and oi Les
Martyrs (1809).
The romantic movement in France; Chateaubriand (i 767-1 848);
Lamartine (i 792-1 869); Alfred de Vigny (i 799-1 863); Victor Hugo
(1802-1885); Alfred de Musset (1810-1857); Theophile Gautier (1811-
1872).
French literature in the reign of Louis Philippe generally influenced
by the romantic movement; history; Sismondi (1773-1842); Guizot
(1787-1874); Mignet (1796-1884); Thierry (i 797-1 873); Thiers (1797-
1877); Michelet (1798-1874); drama; Eugene Scribe (1791-1861); Casi-
mir Delavigne (1793-1843); poetry; Beranger (1780-1857); fiction;
Balzac (1799- 1850); Alexandre Dumas, the elder (i 803-1 870); Georges
Sand (1804- 1 876).
English literature ; romanticism in England : the two groups of poets ;
Byron (i 788-1 824); his influence in Europe ; Shelley (i 792-1 822); Keats
(1795-1821) : the Lake poets; Wordsworth (1770-1850) ; Coleridge
(1772-1834) ; Southey (1774-1843): the Victorian poets; Browning
(1802-1889); Tennyson (1809-1892); the influence of Scott (i 771-1832)
as poet and novelist : English prose writers ; DeQuincey (1785-1859);
Carlyle (1795-1881) ; Macaulay ( 1 800-1 859) : history; Grote (1794-
Literature from lySg to 184.8. 253
1871) ; Thomas Arnold (1795-1842) : fiction ; Thackeray (1811-1863) ;
Dickens (181 2-1 870) : criticism ; Hazlitt (i 778-1 830) : the representa-
tives of the ideas of 1848 in English literature ; Maurice (i 805-1872) ;
Charles Kingsley (1819-1875).
German literature : its greatest period, that of the French Revolution
and Napoleon ; the supremacy of Goethe (i 749-1832) ; his influence ;
the ejGfect of the French Revolution on German literature ; Herder (1744-
1803); Fichte0762-i8i4): beginning of a feeling for German national-
ity ; Schiller (1759- 1805) ; influence of his historical and dramatic
works : enthusiasm for German nationality aroused by the Napoleonic
conquest; Arndt (1769- 1860) ; Korner (1791-1813): history; Niebuhr
(1776- 1 831) ; Ranke (1795- 1886) ; Droysen (1808 -1884) : influence of
the universities on German literature : romanticism in Germany; its
mysticism; Jean Paul Richter (1763-1825); Tieck (1773-1853); De la
MotteFouque(i777-i843): criticism; Schlegel (1767- 1845): theSwab-
ian poets ; Uhland (1787- 1862): the isolated greatness of Heine (1810-
1856), as poet and prose writer.
Italian literature : influence of romanticism ; Ugo Foscolo (1777-
1827); Leopardi (1798-1837); Silvio Pellico (1789- 1854): fiction; Man-
zoni (1784-1873) : history; Botta ( 1 766-1 837 ) ; CoUetta (1775-1833) ;
Cantu (1805- 1 895); Amari (1806- 1889): the national movement in Italy
and its effect on Italian literature : the political writings of Balbo
(1789-1853); Gioberti (1801-1851); and Mazzini (1808-1872).
Spanish literature : special attention paid to the study of history ;
the leading historians; Masdeu (1740-1817) ; Conde ( 1 760-1 82 1) ;
Navarette (1765- 1844) ; Toreno (i 786-1 843).
Portuguese literature ; its nationalist character and effect in destroy-
ing the Iberianist idea: poetry; Almeida- Garrett (i 799-1 854); Castilho
(1800- 1 875) : revival of the study of history; its leader, Herculano
(1810-1877).
Scandinavian literature : its tendency to bring together Sweden and
Denmark : Swedish poetry ; Tegner (i 782-1 846) : history ; Geijer
(1783-1847); Fryxell (1795-1881) : Danish poetry; Ohlenschlager
(1779-1850) : prose; Hans Christian Andersen (1805-1875).
Russian literature : its first national development ; the historian.
Karamsin ' 1765-1826) ; the fabulist, Krilov (1768-1844) : influence of
254 Philosophy from lySg to 18^8.
romanticism in Russia: Pushkin (1799- 1837): commencement of mod-
ern Russian literature: Gogol (1810-1851); Lermontov (1811-1841).
Intense nationalism the characteristic of the literature of oppressed peo-
ples ; Poland: poetry, Michiewicz (1798-1855); history, Chodzko (1800-
1871) ; Bohemia: history, Palacky (1798-1876) ; Hungary: poetry,
Petofi (1823-1849).
The chief development of philosophy during this period was in Ger-
many : Fichte (1762-18 14) ; Schleiermacher(i 768-1 834) ; Hegel (1770-
1831); Schelling (1775-1854) ; Herbart (1776-1841); Schopenhauer
(1788-1860).
The attempt made to interpret German philosophy to France : Cousin
(1792-1867); the positivist philosophy : Comte (1798-1857); the reaction
to Christianity : Lamennais (1782- 1854); Lacordaire (1802-1861); Mon-
talembert (1810-1870).
Political philosophy in France : the ideas of the French philosophers
of the 1 8th century put into action during the French Revolution ;
reaction against them under Napoleon ; growth of the socialist philoso-
phy : Saint-Simon (1760-1825) ; Fourier (1772-1837) ; Proudhon
(1809-1865).
The Utilitarian philosophy in England: Bentham (1748-1832); James
Mill ( 1 773-1 836); John Stuart Mill (i 806-1 873) ; the application of phil-
osophy to j urisprudence : Austin (1790-1867); political philosophy:
Sir G. C. Lewis (1806- 1863); the Scottish school of philosophy: Du-
gald Stewart (1753-1828) ; Hamilton (1788-1856).
Growth in political importance of political economy ; its chief ex-
ponents in England after the death of Adam Smith : Malthus (1764-
1834) ; Ricardo (1772-1823) ; John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) ; in France :
J. B- Say (1767-1832) ; in Germany : List (1789-1846).
LECTURE 79.
ART AND SCIENCE FROM 1789 TO 1848.
Art at the commencement of this period was dominated by classical
ideals ; the influence of the French Revolution on art enforced this
Art and Music frofft lySg to 184.8. 255
spirit, and during the Napoleonic era classicism became conven-
tional ; after the fall of Napoleon the romantic movement greatly
influenced art, and produced a reaction against both classicism and con-
ventionality.
The French painters: the classical school: David (1748-1825) ; his
career during the Revolution and his influence on French art ; his
greatness as a draughtsman ; his career under the Empire ; his pupils :
Gros (1771-1S35) ; reaction to romanticism and realism: Ingres
(1781-1867) ; Horace Vernet (1789-1863) ; Gericault (1790-1824) ; Dela-
croix (1798-1863) ; Flandrin (1809-1864).
The English painters : Constable (1766- 1837) ^^^ ^is influence on
landscape painting ; Turner (i 775-1 851) ; portrait painhng : Lawrence
(1769-1830) ; genre painting : Wilkie (1785-1841).
The German painters : the mysticism of the first romantic painters ;
Overbeck (1789-1869) ; the idealists : Cornelius (1787-1867) ; patriotic
idealism and mysticism : Kaulbach (i 805-1 874) ; importance of Munich
as the art centre of Germany during this period.
The Spanish painters : their one great master, Goya (i 745-1 828).
Sculpture during this period : the leading sculptors : Canova
(1757-1822) ; Flaxman (1755-1826) ; Thorwaldsen (1770-1844) ; Rauch
(1777-1857); David d' Angers (1793-1856).
Improvement in the arts of reproduction : line engraving : Raphael
Morghen (i 758-1 833) ; etching ; invention of lithography (1796) : Sene-
felder (i 771-1834).
Music developed more than painting or sculpture during this period :
the veritable great masters in music exerted their influence, aided by
great improvements in the means for rendering their compositions.
Music studied with greatest success in Germany ; its chief centre,
Vienna : the supreme greatness of Beethoven (1770- 1827) ; Schubert
(1797-1828).
The school of classical correctness in music : Cherubini (1760-1842) ;
Spohr (1784- 1 859).
Development of the opera : the opera in Germany : Weber (1786- 1826);
the Italian opera : Rossini (1792-1868) ; Donizetti (1798-1848) ; Bellini
(1802-1835) ; the opera in France: Harold (1791-1833) ; Meyerbeer
(1794-1864) ; comic opera: Boieldieu (i 775-1 834) ; Auber (i 782-1 871).
256 Science from lySg to 184.8.
Romanticism in music : Berlioz (1803-1869) ; Chopin (1810-1849).
Growth of a higher idealism in music, especially in Germany : Men-
delssohn (1809-1848) ; Schumann (1810-1856) ; attempt of Wagner
(18 10-1883) to widen the sphere and heighten the realism of music ;
effect of his writings ; production of Taiinhauser (1845).
Application of science to material needs : introduction of steam trans-
port ; railroads; Boulton (1728-1809); Watt (1736-1819); Fulton (1765-
1815); Stephenson (1781-1848).
The application of chemistry : Chaptal (1756-1832) ; J. B. Dumas
(1800-1884) ; Liebig (1803-1871).
The application of electricity: the electric telegraph : Gauss (1777-
1855) ; Morse (1791-1874); Wheatstone (1802-1875).
The discovery of photography : Niepce (1765-1833); Daguerre (1789-
1851).
The development of the natural sciences : attempts at a general har-
mony of natural phenomena : Lamarck (i 744-1 829); Alexander von
Humboldt (1769-1859); Darwin (1809-1882).
The great biologists : Cuvier(i 769-1 832); K. H. Weber (1795-1878);
Miiller (1801-1858).
The great physiologists : Bichat (i 771-1802), the first writer on
physiology ; Broussais (1772-1838); Bell (1774-1842).
The great zoologists: Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire ( 1 772-1 844) ; Agassiz
(1807-1873).
The great botanists : Jussieu (1747-1836); De Candolle (1778-1841);
Brongniart (i 801-1876).
The great geologists : William Smith (1769-1839); Dufrenoy (1792-
1857); I^yell (1797-1875); filie de Beaumont (1798-1874).
The great mathematicians: the French school: Lagrange (1736-
1813); Monge (1746-1818); Laplace (1749-1827); Legendre (1752-1833);
Carnot (1753-1823); Fourier (1768-1830); Cauchy (1789-1857); de-
velopment of mathematics in other European countries : Gauss (1777-
1855) ; Green (i 793-1 841) ; Lobachevski (i 793-1 850) ; Abel (1802-
1829) ; Sturm (1803-1855) ; Sir W. R. Hamilton (1805-1865) ; De
Morgan (i 806-1 871).
The great astronomers : Herschel (1738-1822) ; Piazzi (1746-1826) ;
Bessel (i 784-1 846) ; Arago (i 786-1 853) ; Olbers (i 788-1 840) ; Hansen
(1795-1874) ; Airy (1801-1892) ; Leverrier (1811-1877).
The Eastern Question ^ 18^1-34.. 257
The great physicists : interest taken in electricity : Rumford (1753-
1814) ; Young (1773-1829) ; Biot (1774-1862) ; Ampere (1775-1836);
Oersted (1777-1857) ; Davy (1778-1829) ; Fresnel (1788-1827) : Ohm
(1788- 1 854) ; Faraday (i 791-1867); mathematical physics : Lain6
(1795-1870).
The great chemists : Cabanis (i 757-1 808); Gay-Lussac (i 778-1 850);
Berzelius (1779-1848) ; Chevreul (1786-1889); Liebig (1803-1871).
The extension of scientific knowledge brought about a greater degree
of specialization in the natural, mathematical and experimental sciences.
LECTURE 80.
THE EASTERN QUESTION: THE CRIMEAN WAR.
The Eastern Question from the settlement of the crisis brought on by
the war between the Turks and Mehemet AH ( 1839- 1 841).
Protest of England and France against the pressure placed upon the
Turks by Russia and Austria to surrender Polish and Hungarian fugi-
tives : an English fleet entered the Dardanelles (1849) ; influence at
Constantinople of Sir Stratford Canning (b. 1788, d. 1880), created Vis-
count Stratford de Redclifle (1852), the English ambassador (1841-1858).
Reasons for England's interest in the preservation of the independence
of Turkey ; proposal of the Tsar Nicholas to divide the territories of
the "Sick Man" with England.
The attitude of the Tsar Nicholas towards the Turks : consistency of
his policy since the Treaties of Adrianople (1829) and Unkiar Skelessi
(1833); evacuation of the Danubian principalities by the Russian troops
(1851 ) after the reorganization, which followed the Convention of Balta-
Liman ; accession of Daniel, as Prince of Montenegro (1851).
The Tsar Nicholas believed the time propitious for the final over-
throw of the Turks ; Francis Joseph of Austria was bound to him by
gratitude for assistance in 1849, and almost dependent on him ; Fred-
erick William IV. of Prussia, his brother-in-law, was desirous of ob-
taining his help to establish his control over Germany ; England could
258 The Crimean War.
nat fight without allies and might be induced to share the spoil ; while
Napoleon III. was distrusted by the European powers, and maintenance
of his position in France was doubtful ; the conversations of Nicholas
with the English ambassador at Saint Petersburg, Sir George Hamilton
Seymour (Jan., 1853).
The condition of Turkey ; reforms attempted by the Sultan Abdul
Med j id under the direction of Rashid Pasha and the encouragement
of Stratford Canning.
Disputed questions likely to lead to war : the difficulty about Mon-
tenegro ; the quarrel with France about the Holy Places in Palestine.
Mission of Menshikov (b. 1787, d. 1869) to Constantinople (28 Feb.-
21 May 1853); demand of Nicholas to be recognized as official protector
of the Greek Christians in the Turkish dominions ; the Russian ulti-
matum of 5 May, and its modified form of 21 May ; Nicholas' Note to
the Powers (11 June); English and French fleets under Admirals James
Dundas and Hamelin anchored in Besika Bay (14 June); a Russian
army under Michael Gorchakov crossed the Pruth (2 July) and occu-
pied the Danubian principalities; Gregory Ghica, Hospodar of Moldavia,
and Stirbeiu, Hospodar of Wallachia, withdrew to Vienna; the Vienna
Note (28 July); the English and French fleets entered the Dardanelles
(22 Oct).
The Turks at war with Russia (23 Oct., 1853): destruction of the
Turkish fleet at Sinope (30 Nov.); the English and French fleets en-
tered the Black Sea (4 Jan., 1854).
England and France signed a treaty of alliance with Turkey (12 Mar.
1854) and declared war against Russia (27 Mar.); alliance signed be-
tween England and France (10 Apr.).
The attitude and policy of Austria and Prussia : they demand, with
France and England, the evacuation of the Danubian principalities ;
offensive and defensive alliance signed between Prussia and Austria (20
Apr., 1854).
Gallant defence of Silistria by the Turks (19 May-23 June, 1854);
English and French armies under Raglan and Saint- Arnaud landed at
Varna (May-June); the Danubian principalities evacuated by the Rus-
sians (2 Aug.); the allied armies landed in the Crimea (14-16 Sept.).
Austria occupied the Danubian principalities and restored the au-
The Crimean War. 259
thority of the Hospodars (Aug. -Sept.), under an agreement signed with
the Sultan (12 June); the difficulty felt by the Allies in effectively at-
tacking Russia while Austria refused to declare war ; indignation of
the Tsar Nicholas and of the Allies at the conduct of Austria ; Francis
Joseph kept in check by the attitude of Prussia and the Germanic Con-
federation ; the Four Points demanded by the Western Powers, and
accepted by Austria (8 Aug.), but rejected by Russia: (i) abandonment
of Russia's protectorate over the Danubian principalities and Servia ;
(2) freedom of navigation of the Danube; (3) revision of the Treaty of
13 July, 1 841, so far as it related to the neutrality of the Dardanelles ;
(4) abandonment of Russia's claim to the protectorate over the Chris-
tians in Turkey.
The campaign in the Crimea: the Russians under Menshikov defeated
in the battle of the Alma (20 Sept.); death of Saint- Arnaud, who was
succeeded by Canrobert (29 Sept.); battles of Balaklava (25 Oct.), and
Inkerman (5 Nov.); siege of Sevastopol ; defence of the city by Tod-
leben (b. 1818, d. 1884); sufferings of the allied armies during the siege.
The English and French fleets in the Baltic under Sir Charles Napier
and Parseval-Deschenes : capture of Bomarsund (16 Aug.).
Continued vacillation of Austria.
Death of the Tsar Nicholas (2 Mar., 1855); accession of Alexander
II. (b. 1818).
Campaign of 1855 before Sevastopol : Menshikov succeeded by
Michael Gorchakov in command of the Russian army (4 March);
Canrobert succeeded by Pelissier in command of the French army (16
May); operations of the allied fleets, now commanded by Lyons and
Bruat ; attack on the Redan and capture of the Mamelon (7 June) and
failure to capture the Malakov (18 June); death of Raglan, who was
succeeded by Simpson (28 June); Victor Emmanuel, King of Sardinia,
joined the Allies (26 Jan. ), and sent an army under LaMarmora (b. 1804,
d. 1878) to the Crimea (May); battle of the Chernaia (16 Aug.); cap-
ture of the Malakov (8 Sept.); surrender of Sevastopol (9 Sept.); Cod-
rington in command of the English army (11 Nov.).
Campaign of 1855 in the Baltic : the English and French fleets under
Richard Dundas and Penaud bombard Sveaborg and Helsingfors (7-1 1
Aug.).
26o The Treaty of Paris, 1S56.
Campaign of 1855 in Armenia : gallant defence of Kars under Fen-
wick Williams ; its surrender (28 Nov.).
Negotiations of the Tsar Alexander II. for peace ; exhaustion of
Russia.
Congress of Paris for the settlement of terms of peace meeting of
the Congress (25 Feb., 1856) ; plenipotentiaries present were : for
France, Walewski and Bourqueney ; for England, Clarendon and Cow-
ley ; for Russia, Orlov and Brunnow ; for Austria, Buol and Hiibner ;
for Sardinia, Cavour and Villamarina ; and for Turkey, Ali Pasha and
Djemil Effendi; the Prussian representatives, Manteuffel and Hatzfeldt,
were not admitted till 18 March.
By the Treaty of Paris (30 March) the independence and territorial
integrity of Turkey was recognized, the Black Sea neutralized, and the
Danube declared a free river ; the Danubian principalities of Moldavia
and Wallachia were given complete local self-government under their
own princes, with national armies and representative institutions,
guaranteed by the powers, but under the suzerainty of Turkey ; Servia
received the same advantages, but Turkish garrisons were maintained
in Belgrade and in three other cities.
By the Declaration of Paris (16 April) privateering was forbidden ;
neutral goods, when carried in the ships of belligerents, and enemies'
goods on neutral ships, except contraband of war, were protected, and
blockades recognized only when effective.
Before the Congress broke up Cavour (b. 1809, d. 1861) brought for-
ward the condition of Italy, and the proceedings of Ferdinand II.,
King of the Two Sicilies, against his subjects were condemned.
Evacuation of the Crimea by the French and English armies (July,
1856).
The most conspicuous results of the Congress of Paris were the
isolation of Austria and the favorable attitude of the other Great
Powers toward Sardinia.
Authorities : The best small book in English is Hamley, The War in the
Crimea ; see also Engelhardt, La Turquie et le tanzimat ; histoire des rdformes
depuis 1826 ; Forgade, Histoire des causes de la guerre d'Orient ; Lane-Poole, Life
of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe ; Vitzthum von Eckstddt, St. Petersburg and London
in the years 1852-64 ; Thouvenel, Nicolas I. et Napoleon III. (1852-54) ; KinglakCy
Italy from 184.8 to 1858, 26X
The Invasion of the Crimea, its Origin and Account of its Progress to the Death of
Lord Raglan ; Hamley, The Story of the Campaign of Sebastopoi ; Russell, The
British Expedition to the Crimea ; Sandwith, Narrative of the Siege of Kars ;
Rousset, Histoire de la guerre de Crim^e ; Niel, Le siege de Sebastopoi ; Bazan-
courty Iv'Exp^dition de Crim^e ; la marine fran^aise dans la mer Noire et la Bal-
tique, and L'Expddition de Crimee jusqu'a la prise de Sdbastopol ; Todleben, La de-
fense de Sebastopoi ; Brialmont, Le general Todleben, sa vie et ses travaux ;
Rothan, La Prusse et son Roi pendant la guerre de Crimee ; RUstow^ Der Krieg
gegen Russland, and Der Angriff auf die Krim undder Kampf um Sebastopoi, and
Geffcke7iy Zur Geschichte dts Orientalischen Krieges.
LECTURE 81.
THE UNION OF ITALY.
Condition of Italy after the revolutionary movement of 1848 ; cruel
government of Ferdinand II., King of the Two Sicilies ; reactionary
government of Pope Pius IX., the Grand Duke Leopold II. of Tuscany,
Duke Francis V. of Modena, and Duke Charles III. of Parma ; assassi-
nation of Charles III. of Parma (26 Mar., 1854), and accession of Rob-
ert I. ; arbitrary military government of the Austrians in Lombardy and
Venetia.
The only constitutional, parliamentary and moderate government in
Italy was that of the King of Sardinia ; character of Victor Emmanuel
II. (b. 1820, d. 1878); ministry ofD'Azeglio (7 May, 1849-22 Oct., 1852);
Cavour, chief minister of Sardinia (4 Nov., 1852-13 July, 1859) ; his
sagacious policy; Victor Emmanuel and Cavour hoped to accomplish the
union of Italy under the constitutional government of the House of
Savoy.
Progress of the revolutionary movement in Italy: it was mainly re-
publican and democratic, and looked to the formation of an Italian
Republic ; opposite points of view of Cavour and Mazzini ; the former
wished to accomplish the union of Italy by policy, with the countenance
and assistance of Europe, the latter by means of popular insurrection ;
Mazzini's attempt to raise an insurrection in Genoa (June, 1857).
262 The Policy of Cavour.
The Austrians continued to occupy Parma, Modena and the Lega-
tions, while the French had occupied Rome since 1849.
Political advantage obtained by Cavour in joining the Anglo-French
alliance against Russia in 1855, and in sending an army to the Crimea ;
he thus obtained the right to be present at the Congress of Paris, and
to lay the grievances of Italy before the Great Powers.
Interest taken in England and in France in the cause of Italian
unity ; indignation at the cruelties of King Bomba ; conspiracies formed,
and money obtained ; the work of the secret societies and spread of
democratic and unitary principles.
Napoleon III. considered the possibility of assisting the Italian cause;
his sympathy with the spirit of nationality ; the idea of creating a con-
federation of the Italian Princes under the leadership of the Pope and
the King of Sardinia ; attempt of Orsini on the life of Napoleon III.
(14 Jan., 1858).
The condition of affairs in Europe in 1858 favored the policy of Na-
poleon III. and Cavour ; in Prussia Prince William had been declared
regent owing to the insanity of Frederick William IV. (7 Oct., 1858);
the new regent hated Austria and w^as ready to be on friendly terms
with France ; the Tsar Alexander II. also friendly wath France.
England, though less friendly with France than during the Crimean
War, was too much occupied with the suppression of the Sepoy Mutiny
in India to wish to interfere in the affairs of Europe, and English
public opinion was all in favor of Italian unity and liberty; Austria,
the power most opposed to Italian reform and unity, was therefore
isolated.
Success of the French policy in the two Danubian provinces: the idea
of union ; revival of the idea of Romanian nationality ; union not for-
bidden by the Treaty of Paris, though not intended by the Powers ;
provisional government (1856- 1858) ; Alexander John Couza elected
Prince of Moldavia (17 Jan.. 1859), and of Wallachia (5 Feb.) ; Milosch
Obrenovitch replaced Alexander Karageorgevitch as Prince of Servia
(12 Jan., 1859); on his death (26 Sept., i860) he was succeeded by his
son, Michael.
Napoleon III. and Cavour agreed at Plombieres (20 July, 1858) that
Sardinia should cede Savoy and Nice to France in return for assistance
against Austria in Italy.
The War of i8 5g, 263
The relations between Sardinia and Austria : Austria declared war
(26 Apr., 1859); Napoleon III. declared his intention of aiding Victor
Emmanuel.
The campaign of 1859 in Italy : the French and Sardinian armies de-
feated the Austrians at^Montebello ( 20 May) and at Magenta (± Tune)!
entrance of Napoleon III. and Victor Emmanuel into Milan (8 June);
Napoleon's appeal to the Italians to unite for the freedom of their
country.
General insurrection in Italy : the Grand Duke Leopold driven from
Florence (27 Apr.), Duke Robert I. from Parma (9 June), and Duke
Francis V. from Modena (11 June) ; Francis II. succeeded as King of
the Two Sicilies (22 May), and was prevented from aiding the Austrians
by insurrections ; the Austrians withdrew from the Legations (12-18
June); provisional governments formed at Florence under Ricasoli (27
Apr.), at Modena (13 June) and at Bologna (12 June).
The French defeated the Austrians at Solferino_(24 June) ; Napoleon
III. , startled at the spread of the revolutionary movement in Italy, and
afraid of the establishment of a strongly unified monarchy, instead of
an Italian federation, made an armistice with Austria (8 July).
By the Treaty of Villafranca (11 July) Austria made peace with
France and ceded Lombardy, but not Venetia, to Napoleon III.; resig-
nation of Cavour (13 July) ; both Austria and France afraid of the
Prince Regent of Prussia, who had mobilized the Prussian army ( 14
June); definitive treaty signed at Zurich (10 Nov.).
Progress of the movement in Italy for amalgamation with the King-
dom of Sardinia; Tuscany, the Legations, the Romagna and the Duchies
of Parma and Modena voted for union with Sardinia (Aug., Sept.) ;
they elected the Prince of Carignano as regent (6-9 Nov.) ; he refused
the office and named Boncompagni as regent (14 Nov.); Garibaldi
resigned the command of their army (17 Nov.); Cavour recalled to
office by Victor Emmanuel ( 16 Jan., i860).
V Napoleon III. appealed for a conference of the Great Powers to settle
the affairs of Italy (30 Nov., 1859) ; England formally opposed ; Pal-
merston, who had become prime minister (12 June, 1859), declared for
non-intervention and that the central Italian states had a right to decide
on their own government, and he demanded that the French should
evacuate Rome (22 Jan., i860).
264 The Union of Italy,
Victor Emmanuel accepted the union, with the Kingdom of Sardinia,
of Parma, Modena and the Romagna (18 Mar.), and of Tuscany (22
March).
Napoleon III. ceded lyombardy to Victor Emmanuel in exchange for
Savoy and Nice (24 March).
Garibaldi landed in Sicily with a body of followers (11 May, i860) ; his
movement entirely independent ; he disliked Cavour, and was an ad-
herent of republicanism rather than of the House of Savoy; Garibaldi
conquered all Sicily by the end of July ; Francis II., King of the Two
Sicilies, re-issued the constitution which his father had granted in 1848
and afterwards had withdrawn (2 July) ; Garibaldi crossed to the main-
land (19 Aug.), conquered Calabria and occupied Naples (7 Sept.) ;
: Francis II. escaped to Gaeta (6 Sept.) ; Mazzini joined Garibaldi (17
\ Sept.), and projected the establishment of an Italian Republic.
Action of Victor Emmanuel and Cavour at this juncture : they rep-
resented themselves as forced by circumstances to intervene in the af-
fairs of southern Italy ; encouraged by England : wrath of the Pope,
who excommunicated Victor Emmanuel ; Cialdini, with a Sardinian
army, defeated the Papal troops at Castelfidardo (18 Sept.), occupied
Umbria and the March, avoided the Patrimony of St. Peter, and entered
Neapolitan territory (23 Sept.) ; capture of Ancona (29 Sept.).
I The Parliament of Turin, consisting of deputies from all northern
I and central Italy, authorized Victor Emmanuel to unite the March,
Naples and Sicily with the Sardinian dominions (11-16 Oct.) ; Victor
Emmanuel proceeded to Naples ; patriotic conduct of Garibaldi ; Um-
bria, the March, Naples and Sicily voted for union with northern and
central Italy (21 Oct.).
Surrender of Gaeta (13 Feb., 1861).
Meeting of the first Italian Parliament at Turin (18 Feb., 1861); the
King of Sardinia declared King of Italy as Victor Emmanuel 1.(17 Mar.).
Italy thus formed into a united kingdom within eighteen months
from the outbreak of war with Austria, the only provinces not ruled
by the House of Savoy being Venetia, occupied by the Austrians, and
Rome, with the Patrimou}^ of St. Peter, garrisoned by French troops.
Causes of this startling success : the ability of Cavour; organization
of Italy as a limited monarchy under the House of Savoy.
Death of Cavour (6 June, 1861).
The Creation of Romania. 265
Authorities : The best small book in English is Slillman, The Union of
Italy; see also Martinengo Cesaresco, The Liberation of Italy* Tivaroni, Storia
critica del Risorgiinento Italiano; Reuchlin, Geschichte Italiens ; Mistrali^ Da No-
vara a Roma ; Crozals, ly'Unitc italienne ; Giacometti, L'Unit^ italienne ; Cantti,
Delia Indipendenza Italiana; Idevil/e, Journal d'un Diplomate eu Italie, 1859-1862 ;
Bianc/ii, Storia documentata della diplomazia Europea in Italia ; Jiatiazzi, Rat-
tazzi et son temps ; Zeller, Pie IX. et Victor Emmanuel ; Battalia^ Histoirc de la
revolution de i860 en Sicile ; Garibaldiy Memoirs ; Mazzini, Scritti, editi ed in-
editi; Massari, Vita di Vittorio Emanuele II., and Vita di Cavour; Godkin, Life of
Victor Emmanuel ; MazadCy Le comte de Cavour ; Nigra, Correspondence of Ca-
vour with Madame de Circourt, translated by Butler ; Cavour, II conte di Cavour
in parlamento; discorsi, ed. Artom and Blanc; Lettere edite ed inedite, ed. Chiala;
and Nouvelles Lettres, ed. Bert; Bianchi, La politique du Comte Camille de Ca-
vour de 1852 a 1861, lettres inedites ; Mario, Garibaldi e i suoi Tempi ; D'Aze-
glio, I miei ricordi ; L'ltalie de 1847 a 1865 ; Correspondance.ed. Rendu ; Scritti
politici e letterari, ed. Tabarrini; and Scritti postumi, ed. Ricd; Della Rocca, Au-
tobiography of a Veteran ; Duquet, Histoire de la guerre d'ltalie ; Rustow, Der
italienische Krieg, 1859, and Erinnerungen aus dem italienischen Feldzuge von
i860, and Bazancourt, La campagne d'ltalie de 1859.
LECTURE 82.
THE OVERTHROW OF AUSTRIA.
Position of the Great Powers toward each other after the formation
of the Kingdom of Italy.
The restless policy of Napoleon III. : continuance of the alliance with
England, but on less cordial terms ; the joint expedition to China ( i860);
French interference in Syria (i860) ; the French expedition to Mexico
(1862); election of the Archduke Maximilian as Emperor of Mexico
(10 July, 1863); disastrous result of French interference in Mexico (1866);
Maximilian shot (19 June. 1867).
Development of the Eastern Question : friendship between Napoleon
III. and Alexander II.; union of the provinces of Moldavia and Walla-
chia into the Principality of Romania (23 Dec, 1861); death of Sultan
Abdul Medjid and accession of Abdul Aziz (25 June, 1861); overthrow
of Prince Alexander Couza C23 Feb., 1866); election of Prince Charles
of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen as Prince of Romania (20 Apr., 1866).
266 TTie Policy of Bismarck,
Revolution in Greece : overthrow of King Otho (Oct., 1862); election
of Prince George of Denmark as King of the Hellenes (30 Mar., 1863);
representative institutions established; cession by England of the
Ionian Islands to Greece (28 May, 1864).
The position in Italy: the ministries of Ricasoli (12 June, 1861 — 2
March, 1862); Rattazzi (3 March, 1862— i Dec, i862),andFarini(9Dec.,
1862 — 23 Sept., 1864); longing of the Italians for Rome and Venice ;
negotiations with France for the withdrawal of the French garrison from
Rome ; Garibaldi's attempt on Rome defeated at Aspromonte (29 Aug.,
1862); ministry of La Marmora (23 Sept., 1864 — 20 June, 1866); his
negotiations with Prussia.
The policy of Tsar Alexander II.: emancipation of the Russian
serfs (18 Mar., 1861); outbreak of insurrection in Russian Poland
(22 Jan., 1863); offer of Prussia to assist Russia in suppressing the in-
surrection (8 Feb.); gratitude of Alexander ; joint representations of
England, Austria and France in favor of the Poles (17 Apr.); indigna-
tion of the Tsar.
The internal policy of Austria : Rechberg, minister of foreign affairs
(17 May, 1859 — 27 Oct., 1864); the Emperor Francis Joseph promulgated
a unitary constitution (20 Oct., i860); refusal of the Hungarians and
Venetians to send deputies to the new parliament.
Growing strength of Prussia: accession of William I. (2 Jan., 1861);
his character and previous career ; his military instincts ; reorganiza-
tion of the Prussian army by Von Roon (b. 1803, d. 1879), and of the
general staff by Von Moltke (b. 1800, d. 1891); King William's belief
in the unity of Germany and in the mission of Prussia to dominate
Germany.
Position of parties in the Prussian Landtag : Bismarck appointed
chief minister (23 Sept., 1862); he was unable to obtain a parliamentary
majority, but raised taxes and governed without it ; character of Bis-
marck's policy ; he worked for the isolation of Austria and the destruc-
tion of her influence in Germany as the first step towards German
unity.
The weakness of the Bundestag, or Federal Diet ; the schemes of the
middle states, headed by Saxony, Hanover and Bavaria, for preventing
the predominance of either Austria or Prussia.
The Schleswig'Holstein Question, 267
The Schleswig-Holstein question : its position at the death of Fred-
erick Vil. of Denmark (15 Nov., 1863); the Duke of Augustenburg put
forward his claim to the duchies ; at the request of the Bundestag,
Hanover and Saxony occupied Holstein and Lauenburg (23 Dec, 1863),
and Prussia and Austria occupied Schleswig (i Feb., 1864); resistance
of the Danes ; battles of Duppel ; England's futile protests ; Christian
IX. of Denmark forced to yield ; by the treaty of i August, confirmed
30 October, 1864, he surrendered the duchies to Prussia and Austria.
The Bundestag, led by Bavaria and Saxony, demanded that the
duchies should be given up to the Duke of Augustenburg ; Bismarck
scornfully refused; by the Convention of Gastein (14 Aug, 1865)
Prussia and Austria agreed to a ** condominium " in the duchies; Aus-
tria occupied Holstein, while Prussia occupied Schleswig and pur-
chased Lauenburg.
Bismarck's preparations for war with Austria ; the friendliness of
Russia towards the Prussian schemes ; Bismarck's negotiations with Na-
poleon III., to whom he offered Belgium and Luxemburg in return for
neutrality.
Bismarck signed an offensive and defensive treaty with Italy (8 Apr.,
1866), and promised to attack Austria within three months.
Bismarck proposed to the Bundestag that a German parliament be
elected by universal suffrage, that Austria be excluded from Germany,
and that the forces of Germany be divided into two armies, of which the
northern should be commanded by the King of Prussia and the south-
ern by the King of Bavaria (9 Apr.).
Bismarck attacked Austria's administration of Holstein as favoring
the pretensions of the Duke of Augustenburg, and finally refused to
submit the question of the duchies to the Bundestag (4 May). '
Outbreak of the Seven Weeks' War : a Prussian army under Man-
teuffel (b. 1809, d. 1885) entered Holstein (7 June); diplomatic relations
between Prussia and Austria broken off (12 June).
Bismarck declared the Pact of Federation broken (14 June"); Prussian
troops occupied Saxony, Hanover, and Hesse- Cassel ; fruitless success
of the Hanoverians at Langensalza (27 June); Manteuffel invaded
Bavaria and prevented the South German states from lending effective
aid to Austria.
268 rhe Seven Weeks' War, 1866.
The campaign of 1866 in Italy : Italy declared war against Austria
(20 June); the Italian army invaded Venetia and was defeated by the
Archduke Albert at Custozza (24 June); the Italian fleet defeated by
Tegetthoff at Lissa (20 July) ; an armistice signed between Austria
and Italy (12 Aug.), and by a treaty (24 Aug.) Austria ceded Venetia
to Napoleon III. for transference, after a plebiscite, to the Kingdom of
Italy.
The campaign of 1866 in Bohemia: Von Moltke's strategical combi-
nations ; junction of the armies of the Crown Prince Frederick of
Prussia (b. 1831, d. 1888) and Prince Frederick Charles (b. 1828, d.
1885); the Austrians under Benedek utterly defeated at Sadowa, or
Koniggratz (3 July); armistice signed (22 July), followed by the Prelim-
inaries of Nikolsburg (26 July), and the Treaty of Prague (23 Aug.).
By this treaty Austria lost no territory, but agreed to the dissolution
of the Germanic Confederation, and promised to make no opposition
to a new organization of Germany, in which she should have no part.
Prussia's chief advantages from the war were not gained from Aus-
tria, but by the annexation of the following states : Hesse-Homburg
(3 Sept.), Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, the free city of Frankfort (20
Sept.), and Schleswig-Holstein (24 Dec), which gave her an uncon-
tested superiority in Germany ; favorable treaties of peace made with
Wiirtemberg (13 Aug.), Baden (17 Aug.), Bavaria (22 Aug.), Hesse-
Darmstadt ^3 Sept.), and Saxony (21 Oct.).
When the great blew had been struck and it was too late for him to
interfere effectively. Napoleon III., by his ambassador, Benedetti, asked
for Rhenish Bavaria and Rhenish Hesse, as his reward for non-inter-
ference (6 Aug.); William I. and Bismarck refused (7 Aug.), and by
making known the request aroused German feeling against France.
Results of the Seven Wrecks' War on the position of European politics.
Authorities : Debidour, Histoire diplomatique de I'Burope, 1814-78 ; Lejlvre^
Histoire de rinterventiop fraii^aise au Mexique ; Masseras, Un essai d'empire au
Mexique ; Gaulot, L'Empire de Maximilien ; Monicault, La question d'Orieut,
le traite de Paris et ses suites (1856-71); Bergner, Rumanien ; Petrescu and
Stourdza, Actes et documents relatifs a I'histoire de la regeneration de la Rou-
manie ; Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Geschichte Griechenlands ; Hertzberg, Ge-
schichte Griechenlands; Thouvenel, Trois ann^es de la question d' Orient (1856-59),
La Grece.duroiOthon, and Le Secret dePEmpereurC 1860-63); Zeller, PielX. etVic-
The Overthrow of Austria. 269
tor Emmanuel; Ricasoli, Lettereedocumenti;^^rs^2'/V?, II regno di Vittorio Eman-
uele; Garibaldi, Memoirs; Martin, Pologne et Muscovie; Batach, La question polon>
aise dans la Russie occidentale; Arami?iski, Histoire de la revolution polonaise ; LiS'
icki^ L,e marquis Wielopolski ; Leroy-Beaulieu, Un homme d'etat russc, Nicolas
Milutine; Sybel, Die Bcgriiudung des deutschen Reiches durch Wilhelm I. ; Witliam
/., MilitarischeSchriftcn; Rocn, Denkwurdigkeiten;i^(9//^^, Gesammelte Schriften
und Denkwiirdigkeiten, and his Militarische Werke ; Miiller, Graf Moltke ; Hahn,
Furst Bismarck ; Kohl, Fiirst Bismarck ; Busch, Our Chancellor ; Lowe, Life of
Bismarck ; Simon, Histoire du prince de Bismarck ; Poschinger, Fiirst Bismarck
und der Bundesrath ; Bismarck, Gesammelte Werke, Briefe, Politische Briefe, and
Politischen Reden, and Gedenkschriften und Erinnerungen, translated by Butler;
Beust, Memoirs ; Vitzthum von Eckstddt, St. Petersburg and London, 1852-64,
and London, Gastein und Sadowa, 1864-66; Giehne,Zwe\ Jahre CEsterreichischer
Politik ; Malet, The Overthrow of the Germanic Confederation by Prussia in 1866;
Loftus, Diplomatic Reminiscences ; Hansen, A travers la diplomatic, 1864-67 ;
Renouf, Les coulisses de la diplomatic; Rothan, La politique fran9aise en 1866;
Benedetti, Ma mission en Prusse, and Essais diplomatiques ; Klaczko, Les prelimi-
naires de Sadowa, and Two Chancellors, Bismarck and Gortchakoflf ; Viel-Castel,
Memoirs; Gz5/(?//a«^, Journal ; Gramont [pseud. Memor), L'Allemagne nouvelle;
La Marmora, Un pen plus de lumiere sur les dv^nements militaires et politiques
de I'ann^e 1866 ; Chiala, Dal congresso di Plombieres al congresso di Berlino, and
Le g^n^ral La Marmora et I'alliance prussienne; Bonghi, L'allianza prussiana e
I'acquisto del Veneto ; Harcourt, Les quatre ministeres de M. Drouyn de Lhuys ;
Hahn, Zwei Jahre preussich-deutscher Politik, 1866-67 ; Treitschke, Zehn Jahre
deutscher Kampfe, 1865-74; Dicey, The Schleswig-Holstein War; Riistow, Der
deutsch-danische Krieg, 1864; Hozier, The Seven Weeks' War; Lecomte, Guerre
de la Prusse et de I'ltalie contre I'Autriche et la Confederation germanique ; Borb^
stddt, Preussens Feldziige gegen CEsterreich ; Riistow, Der Krieg von 1866 im
Deutschland und Italien ; Fontane, Der deutsche Krieg von 1866 ; Knorr, Der
Feldzug des Jahr 1866 in West- und Sud-Deutschland, and the official accounts of
the wars of 1864 and 1866 by the German, Danish and Austrian general sta£fs.
LECTURE 83.
THE RE-CONSTITUTION OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA.
After the signature of the Treaty of Prague, Prussia propounded a
new organization for northern Germany ; the victories of her armies
and the great preponderance she had obtained over the other states by
270 The North German Confederation,
the annexation of Hanover, etc., caused Bismarck's plan to be promptly
accepted by the northern states {7 Feb., 1867).
Germany north of the Main was formed into the North German
Confederation, which consisted of the two kingdoms of Prussia and
Saxony, the four grand duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklen-
burg-Strelitz, Saxe- Weimar, and Oldenburg, five duchies, seven princi-
palities, and the three free cities of Hamburg, Bremen, and Liibeck.
The federal power extending over foreign affairs, the army, coinage,
and all matters not strictly provincial, was entrusted to the King of
Prussia as President of the Confederation, whose executive minister was
the Chancellor, appointed by himself; the King of Prussia was also
commander-in-chief of the army and navy ; Bismarck appointed chan-
cellor (14 July).
The federal legislative authority was to be administered by the Fed-
eral Parliament, or Reichstag, elected by universal suffrage in proportion
to population.
Between the President and the Reichstag was established the Federal
Council, or Bundesrath, consisting of forty-three members appointed by
the governments of the different states, Prussia nominating seventeen.
The constitution was accepted by the Constituent Reichstag (16
Apr., 1867), which voted taxes for the maintenance of the army for
four years.
Von Roon applied the military organization of Prussia to the whole
of the North German Confederation.
The South German states, Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, Baden and Hesse-
Darmstadt, maintained their independence, but the Zollverein, or Cus-
toms-Union, was renewed between them and the North German Con-
federation (8 July), its affairs being regulated by a " Zollparlament."
The condition of the Austrian Empire after the Treaty of Prague :
failure of the unitary constitution granted in i860, owing to the absten-
tion of Hungarian deputies ; the struggle between the federalists and
the dualists ; the Emperor Francis Joseph resolved on a dual constitu-
tion ; Beust (b. 1809. d. 1886) appointed Austrian Chancellor (23 June,
1867).
The dual agreement of 8 February, 1867 : the Empire split into two
parts, Austria and Hungary, each having separate parliaments, minis-
The Dual Constiiuiion of Austro- Hungary . 271
tries, budgets and complete internal autonomy ; foreign policy, imperial
finance and military administration carried on by ministers responsible
to a Reichstag, consisting of delegations from the Austrian and Hunga-
rian parliaments; these arrangements embodied in a Constitution, which
received the sanction of Francis Joseph ^22 Dec, 1867).
Delight of the Magyars at the Dual Constitution, which was mainly
the work of Deak; their attitude towards subject populations, and com-
promise with Croatia.
Wrath of the Slavonic populations at the Dual Constitution ; the
Slavs of the north, headed by the Czechs, being thus separated from
the Slovaks, Slavonians, Croats and Servians in the south.
The condition of Russia ; liberal policy of the Tsar Alexander II.
and his ministers, except with regard to Poland.
Russia's advance in Central Asia: wars in Turkestan; the conquered
tefritories formed into the Governor- Generalship of Turkestan (23
July, 1867) ; Bokhara became a tributary state (1868).
Condition of the Eastern Question : growth of Romanian claims for
independence under Prince Charles of Hohenzollern ; the Turks with-
drew their garrisons from Belgrade and the other Servian fortresses ( 1 8
Apr., 1867); assassination of Michael Obrenovitch (10 June, 1868),
and accession of Milan, as Prince of Servia ; insurrections in the Her-
zegovina (1861-62) and in Crete (1866-69).
Italian aflfairs after the Treaty of Prague : the Italians demanded the
evacuation of Rome by the French garrison ; the garrison withdrawn
(11 Dec, 1866) ; Garibaldi's attack on Rome (25 Oct, 1867) ; a French
army under De Failly arrived in Rome to defend the Pope (30 Oct.) ;
defeat of Garibaldi at Mentana (3 Nov.) ; withdrawal of the French
troops to Civita Vecchia.
Negotiations of Napoleon III. with Bismarck : his schemes on Bel-
gium; his schemes on Luxemburg, which had been ruled hy the King
of the Netherlands as a German state, but had not joined the North
German Confederation; equivocal position of Luxemburg, which was
garrisoned by Prussia ; William III. of the Netherlands ready to sell
Luxemburg to France, but unwilling to do so without the consent of
Prussia.
Napoleon III. appealed to Europe on the question of Luxemburg ; a
272 The Policy of Napoleon III.
conference of the Great Powers, by the Treaty of I,ondon (11 May, 1867),
directed that the grand duchy be evacuated by Prussia, that the fortress
be dismantled, and that its neutrality be guaranteed by Europe.
Growing weakness and unpopularity of the Second Empire in France ;
effect of the final failure of the Mexican expedition (1867); strength of
the parliamentary opposition under Thiers ; resolution of Napoleon III.
to rule more in harmony with popular feeling ; he granted a measure
of liberty to the press (10 May, 1868), and the right of public meeting
(6 June, 1868), and eventually established real parliamentary govern-
ment (8 Sept., 1869).
Napoleon's concessions taken as a confession of weakness ; general
hatred and contempt expressed for the Empire in France ; the repub-
lican party grew in strength and threatened revolution ; prominence of
Gambetta (b. 1838, d. 1882), elected deputy for Paris in 1869; vigor
of republican journalism; Henri Rochefort (b. 1830), editor of La
Lanterne; influence of the "International," founded 28 Sept., 1864, a
democratic society of workingmen, directed by Mazzini, Kossuth,
Ledru-Rollin, Karl Marx and George Odger.
Napoleon regarded a successful war as the only means practicable for
lestoring the authority of the Empire ; he was falsely told that the
army was efficient ; he resolved on war with Prussia, because Bismarck
had foiled his designs on Luxemburg and he could promise the French
people a restoration of the " natural limits " of France ; his endeavors
to obtain allies ; Austria afraid to join him from fear of Russia, and
Italy declined, because of the French occupation of Civita Vecchia.
William I. and Bismarck also desired war with France ; they wished
to incorporate the South German states and to complete German unity
by a great national triumph.
Napoleon III. formed liberal ministry under fimile Ollivier (3 Jan.,
1870); he appealed to a plebiscite and by 7,336,434 votes to 1,560,709
France declared herself satisfied with the Empire (8 May, 1870).
The pretext for war derived from the situation in Spain.
Recent history of Spain : unpopularity of Queen Isabella II. ; domi-
nation of the army and frequency of military pronunciamentos.
Repeated changes of ministry and alternation of power between Es-
partero, Narvaez and O'Donnell; war with Morocco (1859-60), with
War Declared by France agaiy^f Prussia^ i8yo. 273
Peru (1864-66), with San Domingo (1864-65); chronic state of insur-
rection in Cuba.
After the death of Narvaez and O'Donnell, Isabella was abandoned ;
insurrection of September, 1868 ; flight of Isabella to France (30 Sept.);
formation of a provisional government (8 Oct.) under Serrano (b. 1810,
d. 1885), Prim (b. 1814, d. 1870), and Topete (b. 1820, d. 1885).
Meeting of a constituent assembly at Madrid (11 Feb. 1869); it elected
Serrano regent and declared in favor of limited monarchy ; candidates
for the throne of Spain, Don Carlos, the Due de Montpensier, and Prince
Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ; Prim suggested the candidature of
a prince of the House of Hohenzollern; King William I. of Prussia gave
permission for the candidature of his relative, Prince Leopold of Hohen-
zollern-Sigmaringen (28 June).
Napoleon III. resolved to make out of this candidature a casus belli
with Prussia ; Benedetti sent to Ems to demand an explanation of King
William; his interviews with the King (9-1 1 July); candidature of
Prince I^eopold for the throne of Spain withdrawn (12 July); Benedetti's
instructions to demand yet more from the King of Prussia ; the King
left Ems (15 July); Bismarck ready for war ; mobilization of the Ger-
man armies.
Excitement in Germany at the behavior of France ; the South Ger-
man states prepared to assist the North German Confederation ; enthu-
siasm felt at the prospect of war with France.
England endeavored to mediate, but Napoleon and Bismarck were
bent upon war; France declared war (19 July); European public opinion
regarded the war as wanton and sympathized with Prussia.
Authorities : Von Sybel, Die Begrundung des deutschen Reiches durch Wil-
helm I.; Maurenbrecher, Griindung des deutschen Reiches ; Oncken, Das Zeitaltcr
des Kaisers Wilhelm ; W^//A(?/;w /., Politische Correspondenz ; Treilschke, Zehn
Jahre deutscher Kiimpfe, and Deutsche Geschichte im 19**° Jahrhundert ; Binding^
Die Griindung des Norddeutschen Bundes; Biille, Geschichte des zweiten Kaiser-
reiches und des Konigreiches Italien ; Viron, Histoire de TAllemagne depuis la
bataille de Sadowa ; Ernest, Duke of Saxe-CoburgGotha, Memoirs ; Rogge^ CEs-
terreich (1848-73); Stillman, The Cretan Insurrection of 1866: Delord, Histoire
du Second Empire ; Rothan, La politique frangaise en 1S66, L'Affaire de Luxem-
bourg, and La France et sa politique ext^rieure en 1867 ; Thiers, Discours parle-
mentaires ; Gramont (pseud. Mentor), La France et la Prusse avant la guerre;
274 "^^^^ Frayico-German War, iSjo-yi.
Ollivier, Memoires, and Le 19 Janvier ; papiers et correspondance de la famille im-
periale ; Rochefort, Memoires ; Gambetta, Discours et plaidoyers choisis, ed.
Reinach; Beust, Memoirs ; Benedetti, Ma Mission en Prusse, and EJssais diplo-
matiques ; Hahn, Der Krieg Deutschlands gegen Frankreich und die Griindung des
deutschen Kaiserreichs ; Sorel, Histoire diplomatique de la guerre franco-alle-
mande ; Poujade, La diplomatie du Second Empire et celle du quatre Septembie,
1870; Strobel, The Spanish Revolution, 1868-1875 ; Hubbard, Histoire contempo-
raine d'Espagne ; Mazade, Les revolutions de I'Espagne contemporaine ; Cherbu-
liez, Iv'Espagne politique (1868-73); Lauser, Geschichte Spaniens von dem Sturz
Isabellas ; Pirala, Historia contemporanea (1843-75) ; Laveleye, I,a Prusse et I'Au-
triche depuis Sadowa ; Loftus, Diplomatic Reminiscences, and many of the books
cited under I^ecture 80, including those on Bismarck.
LECTURE 84.
THE FRANCO-aERMAN WAR.
Attitude of the Powers of Europe at the outbreak of the Franco-
German War; England declared neutrality (19 July, 1870), and Eng-
lish public opinion was aroused against France by the publication of
Napoleon III.'s propositions to Bismarck for seizing Belgium ; Russia
declared neutrality (23 July; and threatened to attack Austria, if that
power should join France ; Austria, therefore, remained neutral ; Italy
refused to join France because of the French occupation of Civita
Vecchia ; Denmark alone prepared to aid Napoleon, if the French armies
won some immediate success ; formation of the League of Neutrals
(Aug. -Sept.).
Enthusiasm for the war in Germany ; the Crown Prince of Prussia
took command of the contingents of the South German states.
Excitement in Paris ; the Emperor Napoleon III. left Paris to take
command of the army (28 July).
Rapid mobilization of the German army ; Moltke's plan of campaign ;
inferiority of the French military administration ; change in the French
plan of campaign owing to the adhesion of the South German states to
Prussia.
First campaign of 1870 : the skirmish at Saarbriick (2 Aug.); battle
The Frayico- Germayi War^ iSjo-yi. 275
of Wissembourg (4 Aug.); the Crown Prince of Prussia utterly defeated
MacMahon (b. 1808, d. 1893), at Worth, or Froschwiller, and Prince
Frederick Charles defeated Frossard at Spicheren, or Forbach (6 Aug.);
Moltke, having thus broken the French line, formed the siege of Stras-
burg and advanced against the main French army under Bazaine ;
Bazaine defeated at Borny (14 Aug.), at Mars-la-Tour, or Vionville (16
Aug.), and at Gravelotte, or Saint- Pri vat (18 Aug.); Bazaine's army
shut up in Metz and besieged by Prince Frederick Charles.
Excitement caused in Paris by the news of the French defeats ; the
Empress Eugenie, who had been appointed regent, dismissed Ollivier
and appointed a new ministry under Montauban, Comte de Palikao
(10 Aug.).
The campaign of Sedan : the Army of Chalons under MacMahon,
and accompanied by the Emperor, marched to relieve Metz ; it was
utterly defeated by the main German army at Sedan (i Sept.); surren-
der of the French army (2 Sept.), and the Emperor Napoleon III. sent
a prisoner into Germany.
Revolution of 4 September in Paris : the Imperial Government over-
thrown ; the deputies for Paris in the Legislative Body, with the excep-
tion of Thiers, declared themselves the Government of National Defence,
with General Trochu, commandant of Paris, as President ; this provis-
ional government formed a ministry consisting of Jules Favre (b. 1809,
d. i88o\ Minister of Foreign Affairs; Gambetta, Minister of the In-
terior ; General Le Flo, Admiral Fourichon, Cremieux, Ernest Picard,
Jules Simon. Dorian and Magnin ; the other members of the Govern-
ment of JQational Defence were Emmanuel Arago, Jules Ferry (b. 1832,
d. 1893), Gamier- Pages, Eugene Pelletan, Glas-Bizoin and Henri
Rochefort; iStienne Arago made Mayor of Paris.
The first measures of the new French government : its mistakes ; it
did not immediately summon a constituent assembly ; it persisted in
remaining in Paris ; it sent Thiers to endeavor to obtain allies.
Thiers' journey : his reception in England, Russia, Austria and Italy ;
the French garrison had been withdrawn from Civita Vecchia (3 Aug.):
Rome was captured by the Italians (20 Sept.), and declared the capital
of the Kingdom of Italy.
Continued success of the German armies in France ; the siege of Paris
276 The Franco- German War, iSyo-yr.
formed (19 Sept.^; surrender of Toul (23 Sept.), and of Strasburg (28
Sept.); the Germans advanced south and took Orlea'ns (11 Oct.); Bis-
marck's negotiations with Bazaine ; his attitude towards the Govern-
ment of National Defence; surrender of Bazaine and of Metz (27 Oct.).
Gambetta left Paris (8 Oct.), and organized a branch government at
Tours ; his extraordinary energy and success in calling France to arms;
he advocated war a outrance, and organized the Army of the I^oire ; the
Germans forced to evacuate Orleans, and defeated at Coulmiers (9 Nov.);
advance of the Army of the Loire to the relief of Paris ; critical position
of the German besieging army ; sortie of Trochu from Paris and battle
of Villiers-Champigny (30 N0V.-2 Dec).
Prince Frederick Charles broke the Army of the Loire in two, and
reoccupied Orleans (5 Dec); the branch government retired from Tours
to Bordeaux (10 Dec); surrender of Verdun (8 Nov.), of Thionville (24
Nov. ) and of Montmedy (14 Dec); brilliant defence of Belfort (2 Nov.-
18 Feb.).
Effect of German victories upon German popular opinion ; the South
German states entered the North German Confederation (15-25 Nov.);
the Reichstag offered the King of Prussia the title of Emperor (10 Dec);
he declined to accept it until it was offered to him by the German Prin-
ces ; this was done and William I. of Prussia was proclaimed German
Emperor at Versailles (18 Jan., 187 1).
Russia took advantage of the war and of the existence of Gladstone's
ministry in England to declare the abrogation of the terms of the Treaty
of Paris of 1856 C31 Oct., 1870); conference of the powers upon this sub-
ject at London (17 Jan.); the Treaty of Paris modified so as to permit
Russia to maintain a fleet in the Black Sea (13 Mar.); causes of France
not being represented at the conference ; the policy of Bismarck with
regard to the Government of National Defence.
Final campaign ot 1871 ; the Germans commenced the bombardment
of Paris (5 Jan.); operations of the Army of the North under Faid-
herbe ; battle of Pont-Noyelles (23 Dec, 1870); Faidherbe's success at
Bapaume (3 Jan., 187 1); surrender of Mezieres (2 Jan.) and of Pe-
ronne (9 Jan.); Faidherbe utterly defeated by Von Goben at Saint-
Quentin (19 Jan.); operations of the Second Army of the Loire under
Chanzy (b. 1823, d. 1883); he was defeated by Prince Frederick Charles
The Commune of Paris, i8yi. 277
at Le Mans (11 Jan.); operations of the Army of the East under Bour-
baki ; he was defeated at H6ricourt (17 Jan.), and driven into Switzer-
land ; last sortie from Paris under Ducrot ; battle of Buzenval (19
Jan.); Paris forced to surrender (28 Jan.).
The armistice of 28 Jan., 1871 ; its terms ; its blunders ; conduct of
Jules Favre ; mistakes of the Government of National Defence ; resig-
nation by Gambetta of his authority in the provinces (6 Feb.); elections
held for a Constituent Assembly (8 Feb.).
Meeting of the Constituent Assembly at Bordeaux (12 Feb.); Thiers
elected "chief of the executive power "; signature of preliminaries of
peace with Germany (26 Feb.); the treaty accepted by the Assembly
(i Mar.); by it France ceded Alsace and part of Lorraine, including
Metz, to Germany, and promised to pay a war indemnity of five mil-
liards of francs ; definitive treaty signed at Frankfort (10 May, 1871).
The Constituent Assembly declared the overthrow of the Empire; the
proclamation of the Third French Republic (i March, 1871)0
Formation at Paris of the Government of the Commune (18 March,
187 1); its leaders and their doctrines ; Thiers concentrated an army
at Versailles against the Commune ; resistance of the government of
the Commune ; the Archbishop of Paris and other hostages shot; the
war with the Commune ; MacMahon conquered the Commune and
occupied Paris (21-28 May); burning of the Tuileries and of the
H6tel de Ville.
The most important results of the Franco- German War were the
completion of the unity of Germany and the overthrow of the Second
Empire in France ; but the cession of Alsace and Lorraine, more than
the result of the war, raised inextinguishable hatred between the two
nations.
Authorities : Sorel, Histoire diplomatique de la guerre Franco- Allemande ;
Angehergy Recueil des trait^s, conventions, etc., concernant la guerre Franco-Al-
lemande ; Hahn, Der Krieg Deutschlands gegen Fraukreich und die Griindung
des deutschen Kaiserreichs ; Meding, De Sadowa k Sedan ; IVashburne, Corre- .
spondence relating to the Franco-German War, and Recollections of a Minister to
France (1869-77) ; Daily News, War Correspondence ; Forbes, My Experience of
the Franco-German War; Russell, My Diary during the last great War; RustoWy
The War for the Rhine Frontier in 1870; Borbstddt, The Franco-German War;
Hooper, The Campaign of Sedan ; Labouchere, Diary of the Besieged Resident in
278 The German Empire.
Paris; Bingham^ Journal of the Siege of Paris; Duquet, La Guerre 1870-71; Chu-
quetf Le general Chanzy (1823-1883), and La Guerre 1870-71; Bazaine, L'Armee
duRhin, and Episodes de la guerre de 1870 etle blocus de ^^X.z\Jarras, Souvenirs ;
Mazade, La guerre de France, and Monsieur Thiers ; Trochu, L'Empire ct la de-
fense de Paris, and CEuvres posthumes ; Chanzy , M^moires ; Villefranche, His-
toire du gien^ral Chanzy ; Ducroty La defense de Paris ; Lehautcourt, Le siege de
Paris ; D'Heylli, Journal du siege de Paris; Rothan^ L'AUemagne et I'ltalie, 1870-
71 ; HippeaUy Histoire diplomatique de la troisieme republique fran9aise; Andlau,
Metz; D' AbranteSy Essai sur la regence dc 1870 ; Palikao, Un ministere de la guerre
de vingt-quatre jours ; Jules Favre, Le gouvernement de la Defense nationale ;
ClaretiCy Histoire de la revolution de iS'jo-'ji', Jules Simon, M^moires, Souvenirs du
4 Septembre, and Le gouvernement de M. Thiers ; Glas-Bizoin, Dictature de cinq
mois ; Valjrey, Histoire de la diplomatic du gouvernement de la Defense nationale ;
Maquest, La France et 1' Europe pendant le siege de Paris ; Buret, Histoire de
quatre ans ; Busch, Our Chancellor, and Bismarck in the Franco-German War ;
Mollke, Geschichte des deutsch-franzosischen Krieges von 1870-71, and Militar-
ische Correspondenz; Hanneken, Bazaine un die Kapitulation von Metz ; Blume,
Operations of the German armies in France; Sybel, Der Frieden von 1871 ; March,
History of the Paris Commune of 187 1 ; Du Camp, Les convulsions de Paris ; Ar-
nould, Histoire de la Commune; and Lissagaray, Histoire de la Commune, trans-
lated by Aveling.
A full bibliography is contained in Palat, Bibliographie gendrale de la guerre de
1870-71.
LECTURE 85.
EUROPE AFTER THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR : THE
DREIKAISERBUND.
Condition of Germany after the successful conclusion of the Franco-
Prussian War ; enthusiasm felt for a union achieved on the field of
battle , economic effect of the war indemnity paid by France ; creation
of a national German coinage ; the reconstitution of the North German
Confederation as the German Empire ; the Bundesrath increased by six
voices for Bavaria, four for Wiirtemberg, two for Baden, and two for
Hesse-Darmstadt ; the Reichstag increased by additional represent-
atives from the South German states, chosen in the ratio of one deputy
to each one hundred thousand of population.
The Third French Republic. 279
In spite of the triumph of national unity, particularism made itself
felt in the Reichstag ; though the German princes remained true to the
Empire, the Polish, Schleswig, and Hanoverian deputies formed sepa-
rate and irreconcilable parties, while Alsace-Lorraine refused to elect
any deputies until 1874.
The administration of Alsace-Lorraine (Elsass-Lothringen); its or-
ganization as a Reichsland, or territory of the Empire (1879); its gover-
nors, ManteufFel (1879-85) and Hohenlohe-Schillingsfiirst (1885-94).
The reorganization of France ; by the policy of Thiers and the finan-
cial skill of Pouyer-Quertier, the war indemnity was paid ; France
finally evacuated by the German army (16 Sept., 1873).
The Constituent Assembly at Versailles : the position of parties ; the
majority consisted of monarchists and ultramontanes ; deliberate tardi-
ness shown in drawing up a new constitution for France ; pending its
adoption, the presidency of Thiers was renewed (31 Aug., 1871).
The majority of the Assembly, which favored monarchy, divided into
Legitimist, Orleanist, and Bonapartist parties, and therefore unable to
agree upon a king or emperor ; increasing influence of the republican
minority, led by Gambetta, in France.
The monarchical majority in the Assembly forced Thiers to resign
(24 May, 1873), a^^ elected MacMahon to the temporary presidency of
the Republic; the administration of the Due de Broglie (b. 1821); he
prepared the way for the restoration of monarchy by appointing anti-
republican prefets and officials; fusion of the Legitimist and Orleanist
parties; the Comte de Paris (b. 1838, d. 1894), grandson of Louis
Philippe, recognized the Comte de Chambord (b. 1820, d. 1883), grand-
son of Charles X., as the legitimate king, regarding himself as next
heir to the throne as the representative of hereditary, not of parliamen-
tary, monarchy (5 Aug., 1873); the impracticable character of the
Comte de Chambord ; his refusal to abandon the white flag or to make
any recognition of parliamentary institutions (27 Oct.); the cause of the
Comte de Chambord abandoned by the Due de Broglie and the parlia-
mentary monarchists; election of MacMahon as President of the French
Republic for seven years (19 Nov.).
Completion of the French Constitution (25 Feb., 1875): its con-
servative nature; the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies; the presi-
28o Spain and Italy ^ i8yo-y6.
dency to be held for seven years and the President to be elected not by
popular vote, but by a joint ballot of the two Chambers; the working of
parliamentary government in France; frequent changes of ministry, the
result of the existence of parliamentary groups instead of well-defined
parties.
Condition of Spain: election of Amadeus (b. 1845, d. 1890), second
son of Victor Emmanuel, to be King of Spain (16 Nov., 1870); assas-
sination of Marshal Prim (30 Dec); Amadeus commenced his reign (2
Jan., 1 871); Don Carlos (b. 1848), grandson of the first Don Carlos,
raised a rebellion in the northern provinces (1872); the Carlist War not
discouraged in the southern provinces of France, owing to the mon-
archical character of the Constituent Assembly and its desire to please
the Comte de Chambord; difficult position of Amadeus; his resignation
of the throne of Spain (11 Feb., 1873).
Proclamation of a Spanish Republic (11 Feb., 1873) ; Emilio Caste-
lar (b. 1832, d. 1899) elected President (9 Sept.) ; General Pavia dis-
solved the Cortes by armed force (3 Jan., 1874) ; Serrano assumed the
presidency (3 Jan.) ; the ** intransigente " insurrection suppressed at
Cartagena (12 Jan.).
Pronunciamento of Martinez Campos (29 Dec, 1874); overthrow of
Serrano ; Alfonso XII., only son of Queen Isabella, recognized as King
of Spain (31 Dec.) ; suppression of the Carlist rebellion completed
(March, 1876).
The political situation in Italy: the government transferred from
Florence to Rome (1871); the difficulties in the way of building up a
national government based upon parliamentary institutions ; particu-
larism ; hostility of the Papacy ; the Right, or conservative party, in
power under Lanza (1869-73) ^^^ Minghetti (1873-76); the Left, or rad-
ical party, admitted to office under Depretis (Feb., 1876); the influence
of Victor Emmanuel.
The attitude of the Papacy towards European politics since the for-
mation of the Kingdom of Italy : Pius IX. and Cardinal Antonelli, his
Secretary of State, refused to recognize the new order of things ; their
religious policy; meeting of an (Ecumenical Council, the first since the
Council of Trent, held at Rome (Dec, 1869-Oct., 1870) ; efiect on the
papacy of the conquest of Rome and its recognition as the capital of the
Kingdom of Italy (1870).
The Policy of Bismarck. 281
Increased power given to the Catholic Church in Germany by the
absorption of the South German states into the Empire ; Bismarck's
dislike of Ultramontanism, which he regarded as impairing the spirit of
national unity ; owing to the strength of the Ultramontane party in
the Reichstag, Bismarck attacked the Roman Catholic Church in
Prussia only, where the Protestants had a majority in the Landtag ;
the Kulturkampf ; laws passed, restraining the power of the Catholic
Church (1872-1876), especially the May Laws (11-14 May 1873) ; ex-
pulsion of the Jesuits from Prussia (4 July, 1872; ; attitude of Pope
Pius IX. ; protests of the South German states, and especially of
Bavaria, against Bismarck's anti- Catholic policy.
The foreign policy of Bismarck : his aim to prevent France from ob-
taining any allies in Europe ; he remained on friendly terms with Rus-
sia, whose Tsar, Alexander II., was the nephew and friend of the Em-
peror William, but suspected the Russian Chancellor, Gorchdkov ;
being unwilling to trust entirely to Russia, he looked for other allies ;
England under Gladstone (1868-74) refused to interfere in Continental
politics ; Bismarck therefore entered into close relations with Austria.
The position of Austria : discontent of the Slavs with the Dual Con-
stitution ; Russia encouraged the Pan-Slavic idea, and, therefore, in
spite of the memory of Sadowa, the Emperor Francis Joseph was ready
to enter into alliance with the Emperor William ; dismissal of the
Austrian Chancellor Beust, the enemy of Prussia (8 Nov., 1871) ; he
was succeeded as Minister of Foreign AiFairs by Andrassy (b. 1823, d.
1890).
Formation of the Dreikaiserbund, or Alliance of the Three Emperors,
of Germany, Russia, and Austria (Sept., 1872); comparison between
the Dreikaiserbund and the Holy Alliance ; its aims : (i) to maintain
the status quo in Europe ; (2) to act in harmony on the Eastern Ques-
tion; (3) to oppose the progress of revolutionary, Socialist, and Nihilist
movements.
Triumphant position of Bismarck ; he became the dictator of Europe,
as Metternich formerly had been ; characteristics of his diplomacy.
Authorities : Mailer, Kaiser Wilhclm ; Hahtiy Wilhelm, der erste Kaiser des
neuen deutschen Reichs ; Oncken, Das Zeitalter des Kaisers Wilhelm ; Simony
L'Empereur Guillaume et son rdgue ; Forbes, William of Germany ; Heigel,
282 The Eastern Question,
Kdnig Ludwig II. von Bayern ; Lowe, Life of Bismarck ; Busch, Our Chancellor ;
Hahn, Furst Bismarck ; Kohl, Fiirst Bismarck ; Miiller, Reichskanzler Ftirst Bis-
marck ; Shnon, Histoire du prince de Bismarck ; Klaczko, The Two Chancellors ;
Mohl, Das deutsche Staatsrecht ; Whitman, Germany ; Blum, Das deutsche Reich
2ur zeit Bismarck's ; Hahn, Geschichte des Kulturkampfes im Preussen ; Schulte,
Geschichte des Kulturkampfes in Preussen ; Wiermann, Geschichte des Kultur-
kampfes ; Lefebvre de Bihaine, Leon XIII. et le prince de Bismarck ; Pressenst,
La politique religieuse de la Prusse ; Veron, Histoire de I'Allemagne depuis Sa-
dowa ; Zevort, Histoire de la troisieme republique ; Jules Simon, Le gouverne-
ment de M. Thiers ; Doniol, M. Thiers (1871-1873) ; Chesnelong, La campagne
monarchique d'Octobre 1873 ; Daudet, La v^rite sur I'essai de restauration en
1873 ; ^^ Barail, Mes souvenirs ; Broglie, La mission de M. de Gontaut-Biron
a Berlin (1872-78) ; Stche, Jules Simon, sa vie, son temps, son ceuvre (1814-96);
Hippeau, Histoire diplomatique de la troisieme republique ; Chaudordy, La
France et la suite de la guerre de 1870-71 ; Gambetta, Discours ; Rogge, CE-^ter-
reich von Vildgos bis zur Gegenwart (1849-73); Beust, Memoirs; Houghton,
Origin of the Restoration of the Bourbons in Spain ; Valras, Don Carlos VII. et
PEspagne Carliste, and Gallenga, Iberian Reminiscences.
LECTURE 86.
THE EASTERN QUESTION: THE RUSSO-TURKISH WAR, 1877-78.
Condition of the Turkish Empire during the latter years of the
Sultan Abdul Aziz: increasing weakness of the civil and financial admin-
istration ; the pledges given after the Crimean War for the more tolerant
government of the Christians broken; relying on the protection of the
Western Powers, all reforms were refused.
Attitude of the Sultan towards Egypt: increased importance of that
country to England after the completion of the Suez Canal (17 Nov.,
1869); the title of Khedive made hereditar5^ by primogeniture in the
family of Mehemet Ali (27 May, 1866); the power of the Khedive in
local affairs increased (June, 1867); the two previous grants confirmed
and the Khedive allowed to make treaties with foreign powers and to
maintain an army (June, 1873).
Continued interest taken by Russia in the Eastern Question: the
Tsar Alexander II., having freed himself from the restrictions of the
Russia and the Eastern Question. 283
Treaty of Paris (1871), desired to intervene on behalf of the Christian
subjects of the Sultan ; by pursuing vigorously the classic policy of
Russia he hoped to counteract the growth of Nihilism.
The progress of Russia in Central Asia : the Khan of Khiva forced
to cede a large part of his territories and to acknowledge the suzerainty
of the Tsar (24 Aug., 1873) ; Khokand annexed (14 Mar., 1876);
Russian intrigues in Afghanistan; gradual advance towards the fron-
tiers of British India.
Growth of the Pan-Slavic idea in Russia : the writings of Katkov (b.
1818, d. 1887).
Character and policy of Alexander Gorchakov (b. 1798, d. 1883),
Minister of Foreign Affairs (29 Apr., 1856-3 Apr., 1882).
Attitude of Europe towards the Eastern Question: England, where
Disraeli (b. 1804, d. 1881) succeeded Gladstone (1874), was appre-
hensive of the Russian advance on India and Constantinople; purchase
of the Khedive's Suez Canal shares (25 Nov., 1875); Austrian jealousy
of Russian interference in southeastern Europe, and dislike of the Pan-
Slavic propaganda; France too much occupied with internal disputes to
interfere; Bismarck's declaration that the Eastern Question "is not
worth the bones of a Pomeranian grenadier. ' '
Outbreak of insurrection among the Christians of Bosnia and Herze-
govina (July, 1875); encouraged by Prince Milan of Servia and Prince
Nicholas of Montenegro; the condition of Servia ; adoption of a repre-
sentative constitution (1869) ; the position in Montenegro ; Daniel, the
founder of the dynasty, succeeded by his nephew, Nicholas (i860), who
fomented disturbances against the Turkish government in the neigh-
boring provinces.
The Great Powers presented a joint note to the Sultan (31 Jan., 1876),
demanding reforms and religious liberty for the people of Bosnia and
Herzegovina ; the Tsar Alexander forbade the Turks to attack Ser^'ia
or Montenegro; the Dreikaiserbund threatened the Turks with pun-
ishment, if reforms were not granted (12 May); refusal of England to
act with the other powers (19 May).
Excitement among the Muhammadan population in the Turkish
dominions; policy of Midhat Pasha; palace revohition (30 May, 1876);
overthrow and subsequent murder of Abdul Aziz ; Murad V. pro-
claimed Sultan.
284 The Russo-Turkish War^ iSyy-yS.
Prince Milan of Servia declared war against the Turks (30 June,
1876); the Servian army organized and commanded by Russian officers
under Chernaiev; Prince Nicholas of Montenegro declared war against
the Turks (2 July); the insurgents in Bosnia and Herzegovina declared
those provinces annexed to Servia and Montenegro.
Excitement in Turkey; defeat of the Servians (July-Sept.); ''the
Bulgarian massacres " ; intervention of the Great Powers in the name
of humanity (i Sept., 1876).
Deposition of Murad V. and accession of Abdul Hamid II. (31 Aug.,
1876); the Porte promised reform, and the creation of a Turkish par-
liament; illusory nature of this step; Ignatiev, the Russian ambassador,
presented an ultimatum to the Sultan demanding the effective protec-
tion of the Christians in Turkey (31 Oct.).
Conference of the Great Powers at Constantinople (12 Dec, 1876-20
Jan., 1877); the Sultan refused to grant the demands made of him
(18 Jan.); overthrow of Midhat Pasha (5 Feb.).
Russia and the Turks prepared for war; military enthusiasm in both
countries; peace signed betw^een Servia and the Sultan (28 Feb.). \
The Tsar declared war against the Turks (24 Apr., 1877).
The campaign of 1877: lyoris Melikov (b. 1826, d. 1888) advanced
into Armenia, and the main Russian army under the Tsar traversed
Romania, crossed the Danube and invaded Bulgaria; the Balkans
reached and the Shipka Pass seized by Gurko ; successes of the Turks;
retreat of Loris Melikov and check of the main Russian army by Os-
man Pasha (b. 1832) at Plevna; reinforcement of the Russian armies;
assistance rendered by the Romanians ; I^oris Melikov took Kars (18
Nov.), and Todleben stormed Plevna (10 Dec); the Russian advance
on Constantinople ; passage of the Balkans (Jan., 1878) ; defeat of the
Turkish armies ; achievements of Gurko (b. 1828), and of Skobelev (b.
1843, d. 1882); occupation of Adrianople (20 Jan.); an English fleet en-
tered the Dardanelles; Convention of Adrianople (31 Jan., 1878); con-
clusion of an armistice; the English fleet anchored before Constanti-
nople (13 Feb.).
Treaty of San Stefano (3 Mar., 1878) between Russia and Turkey:
the Turks agreed to the entire independence of Romania, Servia and
Montenegro with some extension of their territories*; to the creation of
The Congress of Berlin, 285
a principality of Bulgaria, and to the grant to Bosnia and Herzegovina
of the reforms demanded by the Conference of Constantinople, with
autonomy ; E.u:::sla received Kars and Batum and the retrocession of
Bessarabia from Romania in exchange for the territory ceded to
Romania by Turkey; by this treaty the power of the Turks in Europe
would have been practically destroyed.
General alarm in Europe: protest of Austria against the increase of
the power of Russia; demand of England, where Salisbury (b. 1830)
succeeded Derby as Foreign Minister (2 Apr., 1878), that the Treaty
of San Stefano be submitted to a Congress of the Powers ; England
made a secret convention with the Turks (4 June), by which she
received Cyprus and the charge of defending the dominions of Turkey
in Asia; Bismarck declared himself " an honest broker ".
The Congress of Berlin (13 June-13 July, 1878): the representatives
present were: for Germany, Bismarck, Biilow and Hohenlohe-Schillings-
fiirst ; for Austria, Andrassy, Karolyi and Haymerle ; for Russia,
Gorchakov, Shuvalov and Oubril ; for England, Beaconsfield, Salisbury
and Odo Russell; for France, Waddington, Saint- Vallier and Desprez ;
for Italy, Corti and De Launay ; and for Turkey, Caratheodori Pasha,
Sadullah Bey and Mehemet Ali Pasha.
By the Congress of Berlin the Treaty of San Stefano was modified:
.Russia retained the accessions of territory she had then received; Servia,
Montenegro and Romania were recognized as independent states and
received small additions of territory; Austria was entrusted with the
government of Bosnia and Herzegovina; the large principality of Bul-
garia, as defined by the Treaty of San Stefano, was replaced by a small
principality of Bulgaria, under Turkish suzerainty, and a semi-inde-
pendent Turkish province of Eastern Roumelia, while Macedonia re-
mained part of the Turkish Empire ; Greece received an extension of
frontier in Thessaly and Epirus.
Disgust of Alexander II. and Gorchakov at the proceedings of the
Congress of Berlin, but Russia was too exhausted by the war to under-
take active opposition: particular resentment felt by Alexander and
Gorchdkov towards Bismarck, whom they declared wanting in grati-
tude for the services Russia had rendered to Prussia in 1866 and 1870;
practical dissolution of the Dreikaiserbund, or Alliance of the Three
Emperors.
286 The Triple Alliajice.
Authorities : Most of the books cited under Lecture 83 deal also with the
period of the Russo-Turkish War; but see also Leouzon-Leduc, L'Bnipereur Aler-
andre II.; Bamberg, Geschichte der orientalische Frage; Gallenga, Two Years of
the Eastern Question ; Vambiry, Central Asia and the Anglo-Russian Frontier
Question, and The Coming Struggle for India ; Hellwald, The Russians in Cen-
tral Asia; Rawlinson, England and Russia in the East; Popowski, Rival Powers in
Central Asia ; Liwof, Michel Katkof et son dpoque ; Leroy-Beaulieu, I^a France,
la Russie et I'Europe ; Wyrouboff, La Question d' Orient et le Traits de Berlin;
Rogge, O^sterreich seit der Katastrophe Hohenwart-Beust, (1873-78) ; Rustow,
Der orientalische Krieg in den Jahren 1877 und 1878; Le Faure, Histoire de la
guerre d'Orient, 1877-78 ; Farcy, La guerre sur le Danube, 1877-78 ; Greene, The
Russo-Turkish War ; Hozier, The Russo-Turkish War ; Baker, The War in Bul-
garia ; Williams, The Armenian Campaign ; Daily News, War Correspondence.
1877-78; Gay, Plevna, the Sultan and the Porte ; Bacarescu, Rumanien's Antheil
am Kriege, 1877-78, and Brunswick, Le Traite de Berlin.
LECTURE 8:
EUROPE TO 1890: THE TRIPLE ALLIANCE.
In his fear of the resentment of Russia for his attitude at the Congress
of Berlin, Bismarck drew closer to Austria and signed an offensive and
defensive alliance with the Emperor Francis Joseph (7 Oct., 1879); this
alliance, when joined in 1882 by Italy, became the Triple Alliance, which
agreed to check the desire of France to recover Alsace and Lorraine, and
the attempts of Russia to reopen the Eastern Question ; from the acces-
sion of the Tsar Alexander III. (1881) until the end of the administra-
tion of Bismarck (1890), the Triple Alliance was on more or less friendly
terms with Russia, dominated Europe, and maintained peace ; frequent
interchange of royal visits.
Germany : internal policy of Bismarck ; after the death of Pope Pius
IX. and the election of Pope I^eo XIII. (1878), Bismarck softened the
application of the May Laws (1880-87), and entered into negotiations
with the Papacy ; end of the Kulturkampf (1887) ; Bismarck and So-
cialism ; his legislation against the Socialists ; relations between Prus-
sia and the other German states ; Bismarck's colonial policy ; death of
the Emperor William I. (9 Mar., 1888) ; death of his successor, the Em-
The Great Powers to i8go. 287
peror Frederick (15 June) ; accession of the Emperor William IL fb.
i859)«» his character and policy.
Russia: assassination of the Tsar Alexander II. (13 Mar., 1881) ;
the reign of the Tsar Alexander III. (1881-94); his character and
policy ; Gorchakov succeeded by De Giers (3 Apr., 1882) as Minister of
Foreign Affairs ; relations with Turkey and the Balkan States; pro-
gress of Russia in Central Asia ; annexation of Merv (11 Feb., 1884) ;
the affair of Penjdeh (30 Mar., 1885) ; war with England averted ; the
Trans-Caspian and Trans Siberian railroads; Russian finance; De
Witte (b. 1849) ; internal affairs ; Nihilism.
France: MacMahon, President of the French Republic (i 873-79 \
Jules Gr^vy (1879-87), and Sadi Carnot (1887-94) ; desire to recover
Alsace and I^orraine ; the second ministry of the Due de Broglie ' 17
May-20 Nov., 1877) ; he made another fruitless effort to restore the
monarchy ; since his overwhelming defeat at the elections of 14 Oct ,
1877, the government of France has been frankly republican ; the in-
fluence of Gambetta ; struggle with the Catholic Church similar to
Bismarck's Kulturkampf (1879-81) ; death of Gambetta (31 Dec,
1882) ; banishment of the Orleanist and Bonapartist princes (22 June,
1S86) ; the Panama Canal scandal ; Boulanger (b. 1837, ^- 1891) ; the
Centenary of 1789 and Paris Exposition (1889) ; material prosperity of
France, but increasing discredit of parliamentary government ; fre-
quent c ianges of ministry ; France in Africa, Madagascar and the
Farther Bast.
Italy: death of Victor Emmanuel and accession of Humbert (9 Jan.,
1878) ; death of Pope Pius IX. (7 Feb., 1878) and election of Leo XIII.
— Pecci — (20 Feb.) ; death of Garibaldi (2 June, 1882) ; relations be-
tween Tie Italian kingdom and the Papacy; "Italia irredenta"; colonial
policy ; attempt to occupy the Abyssinian coast of the Red Sea ; finan-
cial distress of Italy ; the ministries of Depretis (b. 1813, d. 1887) and
Crispi (b. 1819; , Italy as a member of the Triple Alliance.
Austro-Hungary : the dual monarchy ; its failure to promote a
national patriotism ; the selfish policy of the Mag3'ars ; discontent of
the Czechs and Slavs ; wise policy of the Emperor Francis Joseph,
whose personality has held the Empire together; his share in the Triple
Alliance; Andrassy, State Chancellor (187 1-79\ Haymeri^ (1879-81)
288 The Lesser Powers to i8po.
and Kalnoky .(1881-95) J relations with Turkey and the Balkan States ;
the Austrian administration of Bosnia ; the ministries of Taaffe (b. 1833,
d. 1895) in Austria, and of Tisza (b. 1830) in Hungary.
Sweden and Norway : reigns of Marshal Bernadotte under the title
of Charles John XIV. (1818-44), of Oscar I. (1844-59), of Charles XV.
(1859-72) and of Oscar II. (1872- ) ; opposition in Norway to the
dual monarchy ; democratic and republican ideas of the Norwegians ;
since 18 15 Sweden has ceased to play a prominent part in European
politics.
Denmark: reign of Christian IX. (1863- ); constitutional struggles;
his relations with Russia and England.
The Netherlands: death of William III. (23 Nov., 1890); succeeded
in the Netherlands by his daughter, Wilhelmina (b. 1880), and in
Luxemburg by Adolphus, Duke of Nassau.
Belgium : character and policy of Leopold II. (1865- ); his interest
in the Congo Free State.
Spain: death of Alfonso XII. (25 Nov., 1885); succeeded by his son,
Alfonso XIII. (b. 17 May, 1886), under the regency of his widow,
Maria Christina ; the ministries of Canovas del Castillo (b. 1828, d.
1897) ^^d of Sagasta (b. 1827).
Portugal: reigns of Pedro V. (1853-61), Luis I. (1861-89) and
Charles I. (1889- ); the career of Saldanha (b. 1791, d. 1876);
growing spirit of nationality; financial troubles.
Switzerland: growth of republican and democratic ideas.
The Eastern Question after the Russo-Turkish War : attitude of
Russia, England and the Triple Alliance ; danger of European war
arising out of the situation in Bulgaria.
Turkey: the Sultan Abdul Hamid II.; his personal government;
introduction of Western ideas; clever foreign policy.
Greece : reign of George I. ; action of Greece during the Russo-
Turkish War ; Thessaly given to Greece by the Congress of Berlin and
occupied (1881); desire to annex Crete and Macedonia.
Romania declared an independent kingdom and Prince Charles pro-
claimed king (26 Mar., 1881); development of parliamentary govern-
ment ; John Brateano (b. 1822, d. 1891) ; " Romania irredenta."
Montenegro: Prince Nicholas; his close relations with Russia; the addi-
Bulgaria and Egypt. 289
tional territory, including the port of Antivari, granted by the Congress
of Berlin, transferred b>^ the Turks under the pressure of the Great
Powers (188 1.)
Servia: proclamation of Prince Milan as king (6 Mar., 1882); war
with Bulgaria (1885); abdication of Milan (6 Mar., 1889) in favor of
his son, Alexander I. (b. 1876).
Bulgaria: Alexander of Battenberg elected Prince of Bulgaria (29
Apr., 1879); general uprising in Eastern Roumelia (18 Sept., 1885) and
declaration of its union with Bulgaria ; Servia declared war against
Bulgaria (14 Nov.); victories of Prince Alexander at Slivnitza (16-19
Nov.); armistice signed (21 Dec); Prince Alexander forced to abdicate
and withdraw from Bulgaria (3 Sept., 1886); power and influence of
the Regent Stambulov (b. 1855, d. 1895); he secured the election of
Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, as Prince of Bulgaria ( 7 July, 1887), but
continued in power as Prime Minister ; disapproval by the Great
Powers, especially Russia, of events in Bulgaria.
Egypt: the rivalry of England and France in the Mediterranean;
dual control established over the government of Egypt, which was
practically bankrupt (1878); deposition of the Khedive Ismail (26 June,
1879); Arabi Pasha raised an insurrection against the new Khedive,
Tewfik (1881); riot in Alexandria (11 June, 1882); England inter-
vened, bombarded Alexandria (11 July), overthrew Arabi Pasha in the
battle of Tel-el- Kebir (13 Sept.), and maintained a garrison in Egypt;
opposition of France and protests of the Sultan; first appearance of the
Mahdi in the Sudan in the summer of 1881; his destruction of two
Egyptian armies under Hicks Pasha (3-6 Nov., 1883), and under Baker
Pasha (4 Feb., 1884); England undertook to defend Egypt against
the Mahdi; return of Gordon Pasha (b. 1834) to Khartum (Feb., 1884);
expedition of Wolseley to relieve Khartum (Sept., 1884-July, 1885);
fall of Khartum and murder of Gordon (26 Jan., 1885); the Mahdi
complete master of the Sudan; his death (21 June); desultory warfare
carried on against his successor, the Khalifa; organization of a new
administrative and judicial system in Egypt under English super-
vision ; the work of Sir Evelyn Baring, Lord Cromer (b. 1840).
Africa: France established a protectorate over Tunis (12 May» 1881) ;
the Germans occupied Angra Pequena on the west coast of Africa (2
290 Dismissal of Bismarck,
May, 1883); Massowah, on the Red Sea, occupied by the Italians (6 Feb.,
1885) ; interest in the Congo region of Leopold, King of the Belgians,
who called for a conference on Africa, which met at Berlin (15 Nov.,
1884-26 Feb., 1885) ; the Conference, in the General Act of 24 Feb.,
1885, decided that occupation of territory, in order to be recognized, must
be effective, established a free trade zone, and required the suppression
of the slave trade and slaverj^ ; another result of the Conference was
the establishment of the Congo Free State under the sovereignty of
Leopold II. ; rapid progress of the partition of Africa ; the Brussels
Conference (18 Nov., 1889-2 July, 1890) took further measures to sup-
press the slave trade and regulated the sale of fire-arms and spirituous
liquors to the natives ; the work of Stanley (b. 1841).
Bismarck, the dominant force in European politics of this decade ;
effect upon his position of the deatli of the Emperors William I. and
Frederick ; his disagreement with the Emperor William II.
Attempts to form a Franco- Russian Alliance to oppose the Triple Al-
liance of Germany, Austria and Italy.
Dismissal of Bismarck (17 Mar., 1890) ; retrospect of his twenty
years' dictatorship over Europe.
Authorities : The events described in this lecture are too recent to permit of
satisfactory historical treatment, but contemporary accounts of all the events may
be found in the Annual Register and in Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia, while
general accounts are to be found in Dilke, Present Position of European Politics,
published in 1887, and in Seignobos, Histoire politique de I'Europe contemporaine
(1814-96). Reference may be made to a few special works, such as: Daudet, His-
toire diplomatique de I'alliauce Franco-Russe (1873-1893); Leroy-Beaulieu, La
France, la Russie, et I'Europe ; Lefebvre de BShaine, Leon XIII. et le prince de
Bismarck ; Philippson, Friedrich IIL als Kronprinz und Kaiser ; Rodd, Frederick,
Crown Prince and Emperor ; Morrison, Russia under Alexander III. ; Lowe,
Alexander III. of Russia; Krausse, Russia in Asia; Zevort, Histoire de la troisieme
r^publique; Lecomte, Les rallies, histoire d'un parti, 1886-1898 ; Stillman, Fran-
cesco Crispi ; Smithy Memoirs of Saldanha ; King Charles of Romania, Aus dem
Leben, Aufzeichnungen und Augenzeugen ; Sergeant, Greece in the Nineteenth
Century ; Berard, La Turquie et I'Hell^nisme contemporaine ; Laveleye, The Bal-
kan Peninsula ; Huhn, The Struggle of the Bulgarians for National Independence
under Prince Alexander; Milner, England in Egypt ; Traill, Lord Cromer ; Hake,
Journals of Gordon at Khartum ; and Keltie, The Partition of Africa.
APPENDIX
Q
pa
<1
O
W
o
(4
CO O
w
i
I
H ^! If
■§- 11 ^^
o
|.1
IS
•c
5.2
§
<u »
en ^
-I-
w a s, Ss
4
w z
rSoJ
\2v5<
Sv?
«« 5
o
5
«
^3
H
(A
Q tn U
5! w fr
NOvOvO
(293)
1^8
•O o.S
S o
Ja ^ o
&
^
5 ^ ^ si
g Wi J2 <U,^
I.
1^1 «•
'^ ^ s ^
I
5^
VDVO
«0 UOvS NO VO t^ t^ t^OO 00 00 00 <»*
■O vo "O "O \o 'O QD vO ^ vO VO ^ vo
M W lo O M to
O O O -> •-. i-i
( 294 )
si
U
I
I
§
Sal
•TO ►<
S o
.2 '"^
^
o
li
s ^ ^
It* »i •**
^ •« ^ ^ ^
^<^
3 J ^
Q 06 O
^ t^
I e
^2.
^ xfi r^w ni'^
M M M C< N (N
tc^
1— • l*<
o « 8
(295 )
Is!-?
-t.
> ^
^ <;
v§v
t^ t^ t-^ t^ t^ t-» t^
tin
<^2^
0.2 -2
o 5 o «
(U rt 2 3
1^
«r5 vo t^
00 0000
(296)
S o5
M Q ^)
si
§
ij:
^
CO
-go"
Bo*
SI v> -^
\, » ^ ^
m
II
^a
rs u ^ k ^
<J-3
2'ir^m
o
be
>8
o5 <» ooo5 00
8 N W «
00 CO 00 00 00 OOOOOOOOQO
OO 00 00 CO
(397)
8^
a1
•11
II
ife^
rtU
H
O
P
<Joo
w2
"^ o vj
« <o a
§3
nj CO
•rl
^ ^ *<
'w 8 "^j
« S 5
R> o ^>
J§
J3 k
.2^
8
• «
•I
OOOOQO 00
OOCOOO
1— • \->\4^ K^\^^
Tl- -rf Tt "* ri-
00 00 OO 00 CO
o >-■ w
lO lO lO
cccooo
tMOvOOO
00 00 00 00
II
I 1-c CS Tj-lOV
IOC 00 00 000
(298)
II
I
Q
w
CL,
Oh
<
§
rt
C
"Jn
O 0)
<u <
S " «
g'C W
'd'O
b o" o « ^ 5
a; rt g o > o
tn t:,2 8 b 8
•Si
fit I
s
:<3
CHS
•** > o
v c
(Si
-co
a; o
a2i
:a
. a
•3
«* «oo
coco 00
I
oo
I-
iiisi* i i^ M<l<?l^«?
( 299 )
«
Q
PL,
I-
s
Jt^'
§
to
02
^.
u>
W
«
W
,
f5
«
Oi
O
r"N
Ph
Ot)
Ph
n
00
^
m
^
W
r-l
1
Pi
a
rH
kJ
?
1
w
n
H
51
H
'^
s
Catholic
Netherlands.
Governors under
Spain.
f Archduke Albert,
1 Infanta Isabella
(since I599)'
i
Is
t-H
.11
Francisco de Mello.
Marquis of Castel
Rodrigo.
Archduke I^opold
Protestant
Netherlands.
Princes of
Orange- Nassau.
Philip William
(since 1584), but
not Stadtholder.
Maurice (Stadt-
holder since
1587).
Frederick Henry
(Stadtholder).
t-t*©
11
Portugal.
( United to
Spain since
1580).
>
t-H
t
1
Muhammad III.
(since I595)-
Ahmad I.
Mustapha I.
Othman II. . .
Mustapha I.
(again).
Murad IV.
U2
1
si
>
1
1
1600 Sigismund,
King of Poland
(since 1592).
160^
tn'O
•oc
0
i
rt
C
tr
•c
' 1
'I
'I
■ 5:
•
(300)
4«
•ii « a ,;
^5
< a
5 b R C
Q
Z
W
Pu,
Ph
<
«
o
Q
.8
^
«^-^
^ ^
^i.
t-H M
I?
2-^
^ C
VONO
vC ^ vO ^O vo VO vO vO *0 "O NO "O >0 ^nO
(301)
•si
ea...
5^
S
be .
bc^ >
bca; 0]
<D oc/2
a; 53
^S ^ ch ^
o
<50
"Is.
w
Ph
el
^13 go
tn O
? >-
be o
<3
*2
•C-o
X
g^c^
v5vo
ONO o
( 302 )
< w
^ ^ 2 '^
^1
3 S «
<0 o
II s^
•v» *, S \i
^J^
a
•c
cd
Is
^
*^
S
G ^
>
a 5
o o
PL4ft4
(^'£
Ph.P
too
•d-r <u
w .v-i . .
lOiovovo vor^r^t^r>»t^ cooo oo do 000*0^0^ o^
^oj)
11
1
1
is
1
i
t
ri
2
li
l| 1
F 1
1
a as
.2 .2 .2
1 1 1
1
"33
i
1
j
>
, III
ii
1 •
« •
0 •
t
.
i
X
1
<
a
1
>
>
C
>
<u
i
0
8
1
1
1
tn
ID
1
cooc
CO cc
CO
i
OC
5 5
cc
5|
1-5
0
cocc
OC
>
as
1
^1/
^
cccc
1
( 304 )
t-H
>
HH
a
HH
X
Ui
Oi
n
Oi
t-H
00
Q
T—l
'^
u
D
'H
Oh
p^
Ph
w
<
B
ui
^1 ^
o '^
I
3i^
n
Co.* f^ « «o
5^.
0} o
i-s
5 fl
O 4)
Si
,03
> .
"-• c
>
V >
S.5§
2 .X
so VO u5 vS vo VO ^O vo vO \0 \C ^ NO \0 \0 NO ^ ^O No vO
(305)
8.Q
Q§ ^
S s a
Co 8 ^ « <o
^ a;
bo 'C
a d
C0*< V
u M
2: 4) tn
a
o
2^
S
o >»
w. O O
o . .
a
-j > tl
o o >< o S'
c 0:20 o
2 S
<j:S,
10 vo
VDVO
f ^S^ vSR S
X
§5
X
(S£
X
S o
6h
H MM
CM fO
(306)
13
I
is
•3*
£0.
X
e
#
(0
■-I
• « «
j:;
s'^ 1
r'S'
0
*:z;p;^ .
2i
It
I's:1^>
a;
rt h«^2
H
^••a
0.5-0 S
f^
^^hl
i3
Sa
^
qc^
^6
I
t
If
o .
VI P.
a
^1
•3^
«i— .1-1
o ac
a 4; 2
•2§>
S .2
|o.S
Ot-tl-l
1*
i>HH-
o o
O a;
X8
Is
fO ^
t-,?.
OS
v2^ i
^ I: ?
( 307 )
s
O CO
^ o
3^
\A>.
(0 bo
.2 60
h4M
S TO
q a
O
8 yS";
•<5 k
as
-3^
bom
Ih ■*-»
fe o
5>
O 2 a; »H
si
o o
>•?
.S be
boOicfi v;
lU rt 3 >-i
t*)
^ I
rO 1
"s.
sS
I
Co .'^
•2 I"
§■5
a ^ .
a
a ..^.
I
W|§«
4>
-a
a;
I
<0 I^UO'
00 00 00
«5 a5 w oSoo w woooooow
(309)
X
n
pa
Pi
<
^'
o
i-t
<
Pi
w
Q
PM
W
S
W
o
a
<
tH
w
O
GO
T— 1
PiS
"^
w
1—1
w
rH
w
t^
O
00
tH
00
1^.
^
o a w
> ^ <u
Id
^ o
J CO rH 'W <U
bcbC" rt o S:
biO
c o c b c
u-i
.2 8
^00
flj OJ
(3:0 )
O W rt (U
tf^ vo - c •;:
M W (U ."t^ •
o M cs
VO vovo vo
(U "-I
O o (U
O
^
fo
Elector- Arch-
bishops of
Treves.
...
1%
1
k
•§5
Elector-Arch-
bishops of
Cologne.
Maximilian
Henry of
Bavaria.
a
■ II
1°
111
Anselm Casimir
von Wambold.
John Philip von
Schonborn.
Lothar Frederick
von Metternich.
Damian Hartard
vonderLeyen.
Chas. Henry von
Metternich.
Anselm Francis
vjon Ingelheim.
Dukes, aft.
Electors, of
Hanover.
0)
Electors.
Ernest
Augustus.
t-H
I
0
a
t
>
r
It
55 "5
■§
. ?
ll
1
1
^ ^
s3
1648 {Electorate
restored).
Charles
Louis I.
1 >/
,5
> I
5 V
- 1
• 1
- 1
u
1
c
%
^ 1
(3")
Elector- Arch-
bishops of
Treves.
0 fe
1
0
ii
.2-5
1|
Si
Elector-Arch-
bishops of
Cologne.
u ■
p i
Jj 0
P :
Maximilian
Frederick von
Konigseck-
Rothenfels.
Elector- Arch-
bishops of
Mayence.
.2 2
S 2
Francis I,ouis of
Neuburg.
Philip Charles
von Kltz.
John Frederick
von Ostein.
r
George I., King
of Great Brit-
ain, 1714.
^5
0
bo
.5 c
Kpq
1^
9
CD "
:3 rt
5^
*"* '0
r
• Is
Electors oJ
Bavaria.
Charles Albert
(Emp. Charles
VII., 1742-45).
^
Is-
F
1
1
1
^ 1
1
a-
^ c
6
73
^
; 1
- 1
■J
(3")
Elector- Arch-
bishops of
Trives.
t
1
1
3
1
Elector- Arch-
bishops of
Cologne.
Archduke
Maximilian.
(Electorate
abolished).
Elector- Arch-
bishops of
Mayence.
i
IS
1
Q
to
1
—
1
1777 Charles Theodore (unites the
electorates).
itJU ...
I
i
i
1
: §1
<2
•§
1
o
M
c
.2
1
M
1
' 1
1
- !
■ t
—
Hesse- Da rm-
stadt ; Grand
Dukes, iSo6.
•
a
r
(Merged in kg:m.
of Westphalia).
WilUam L
Baden; Elec-
tors, i8oj. Grand
Dukes, 1S09.
Charles Fred'k.
Charles Louis
Frederick.
1
Wtcrtemberg ;
Electors, iSoj,
Kings, 1806.
X
•a
Hanover ;
Kings, 1814.
a;
So .
: i
d
• 5
ii
1
■ I
ac
(313)
7-2
o
O
o
50
bog
2 3
>" rt
•-> tin
to
o
>-• lOt^O M
N M W rO fO
C»0OOD0O CO
Si U3
o pS
>-Jto
COCOOO COCO
(LI tn
5^
00 00 CO CO
O
•-I o
(314)
w
H
o
b
Q
o
'A
w
H
<:
H
w
en D
w £
Q p
fa
O
1*^
Semi-independ-
ence recognized,
Si
1*
•
i
S
•-1
1
US
<
-d
•^
5
1
III
: s
o
^
^
3S| ftt '■
t t
1 1
i
i
,§•-•3 -2
Ilii
1
^ w ^ o
till
§
O
1
1
<
Pi
rt O !- o
o "■' C
11
—
-^1
1
1
■■.tti
fill
i
a
c
c
) •
3
1
•e
■Mh
w 3.2 s
5 £<
i!
•<
i3
III
1
^
sk :
CO o 00 oc
•r
0
• 1/
oc
^1
' 1
'1
' 1
1
(3'S)
p
<
Semi-Independ
ence recognized,
1841.
Ismail.
. Khedives.
Ismail.
1
^
i
i
1
1
^
^
lllfl
1
1
1
i
f
t-H .
1
•III
a
a
S
•i
■ ^
1
1
^J l^ C\l
a
c
0)
0 c
^
1
■ 1 i
~t
(316)
X
Q
H
^
o
W
Ph
Ph
Ph
03
<
§
t-H
H
<
hT
W
pj
H
O
•-«
H
55
W
g
S
i
O
Q b '^
-^ 2
3lS
j^A
-^•?a
R C ^
«a^
•2 1 5
s<
2-" rt
.2 ^ ^-C
.•;J g o rt
i5 ^ rt
|aw^
I*
T T
fe°>
41^
t! boa
(U a v
o^
^
W
•-4
- 3
.-^ a
§1
.'3 s 5
a'
4) ►»
(3>7)
>
Q
«
g
w
5Zi
O
Pi{
H
I
offi
^g
S§
coo
w
CO
W
w
>
O
o
CO
w
55^
5£
ir
f
"SO© !-! I ^
mQWO
.^,
OC/3W^
en CO
<T3
as-
•SOT
> o
g O
Alc/2
^
t
^ > w
o w<f
§«■§■
'd
1
■^•Sa
Vh
a
>^a; rt 0
iS3
u
^«g
*o
1
«*-.s
^
o'C
a
4j ^
-*
343
0 0
fic?
•S^
''3 bo
^^
1^
a
(3t8)
X
Q
m
Pu,
<
a:
Q
<
I
u
a
to
W ^
H 5
•^ u
w
H
O
»
S
.2 <« 5 o p»
•So c..
-•3
i-Sr
WO
mill
n
i|S
'ot
Q
2"
§w;£
II
2^
S
.2°
II
11 -5^ 5
Too
5 O
tooOo
etf2<! s S g
.2 ^
=4
"3 u «^
^.2 S
2 o - V u^
.5-f' ex a««
ill 2"-
■a^oT
H
>
"C u ». CO
l§sa
fcCo3
22
WW '
r
■w|"
(319)
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPEDBELOW
AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CFMTq
WILU INCREASE TO 50 CENTS ON THE FOURTH
6 )9o^
OCT 13 isj,
"'^^ 16 J933
J^.a >6t937
^^C-^
LD 21-50w-8,.32
LM^iii
Live Music
Archive
Librivox
Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland
Museum of Art
Internet
Arcade
Console Living Room
Open Library
American
Libraries
TV News
Understanding
9/11